The Second World War

The Nazi Germany-Soviet Union agreement allowed the Soviet Union to pursue its interests in Poland and Finland, despite ideological differences. However, doubts persisted regarding the durability of this cooperation. Nevertheless, Hitler defied expectations and ordered the invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939. This action prompted Britain and France to issue an ultimatum to Germany, demanding the withdrawal of troops or face war. When Germany rejected the ultimatum, Britain declared war on September 3. Although some German generals had warned against engaging in a large-scale European conflict, Germany employed blitzkrieg tactics, utilizing tanks and aircraft to swiftly conquer strategic areas. The Polish army was ill-prepared to counter this new style of warfare, leading to their defeat within a month. Germany occupied western Poland, while the Soviet Union invaded the eastern part as agreed upon with von Ribbentrop.

The declaration of war by Britain and France had a significant impact across Europe, although actual fighting was limited. Belgium, Holland, and Norway declared neutrality and offered little assistance to Poland's defence. Britain and France prepared for a potential German invasion, resulting in a period known as the "phoney war," characterized by war preparations without significant hostilities. Meanwhile, naval activities occurred, such as German attacks on merchant ships and British bombings of German shipping and leaflet drops. The German pocket battleship Graf Spee sank British merchant ships in the South Atlantic but was ultimately forced to seek repairs in Uruguay after sustaining damage from British cruisers.

The phoney war could not last indefinitely, and Hitler turned his attention westward towards France. Britain and France also launched a campaign in Norway, a neutral country that supplied Germany with vital iron ore. However, the campaign ended in failure, leading to Neville Chamberlain's resignation and Winston Churchill assuming the role of Prime Minister. The French had constructed the Maginot Line along their border with Germany, but its design flaws allowed Germany to bypass it by invading Belgium, Holland, and Luxembourg. Germany swiftly conquered these countries and advanced towards France.

The evacuation of British troops from Dunkirk, known as Operation Dynamo, lasted nearly a week and resulted in the rescue of 338,000 men. While considered a British victory, the defeat in France came at a high cost, including the loss of soldiers and crucial equipment. Churchill warned against excessive optimism, emphasizing that wars were not won through evacuations. Amidst the success of the Dunkirk evacuation, the tragic sinking of the RMS Lancastrian during Operation Arial went largely unnoticed. The exact number of casualties remains unknown, but it is estimated that between 3,000 and 6,000 lives were lost, making it the deadliest maritime disaster in British history.

Mussolini's declaration of war on Britain and France on June 10, 1940, raised concerns for Churchill. Within 46 days of fighting, Hitler's troops achieved what the Kaiser had failed to do in four years—defeat and occupation of France. The country was divided, with Germany occupying the northern half and the Vichy French government acting as German puppets in the South. Fearing that France's fleet could join the German Navy and blockade Britain, Churchill made the controversial decision to demand the surrender of French warships at Mers-el-Kébir. When the French refused, the Royal Navy bombarded them, resulting in significant casualties and the sinking or damaging of several ships.

After subduing France, Hitler shifted his focus to Britain but didn't intend to completely destroy it. He believed that annihilating Britain would only benefit the increasingly hostile Americans. Perceiving Britain as weakened after France's fall, Hitler sought peace, but Churchill, aware of the slim chances of repelling a full-scale invasion, refused to surrender. Consequently, Hitler ordered his generals to plan Operation Sea Lion, the invasion of Britain.

During this time, Germany, Italy, and Japan began negotiations for an alliance to counter the United States, culminating in the signing of the Tripartite Pact on September 27, 1940, forming the Axis forces. The English Channel posed a significant obstacle to a German invasion, as crossing it was only feasible during the summer months. To pave the way for the invasion, Germany needed to neutralize Britain's air force, the RAF. Churchill made extensive preparations to defend the country, even authorizing the use of chemical and biological weapons in potential landing zones.

The Battle of Britain commenced on July 10, 1940, as the German Luftwaffe launched an offensive against the RAF. Despite initial German confidence, the RAF, supported by pilots from various nations, put up a formidable defense. The Luftwaffe targeted British airfields to cripple the RAF's support infrastructure, but the RAF gradually recovered and even conducted retaliatory bombings of Berlin.

Meanwhile, Hitler made the decision to send two divisions to support Italian forces in North Africa, forming the Africa Corps under General Rommel's leadership. Rommel, known as a skilled leader in tank warfare, advanced eastward towards Egypt but faced challenges, including fuel shortages that worried Hitler. In their efforts to overcome the fuel shortage, the Germans resorted to stealing from the British, leading British troops to nickname their fuel cans "jerrycans."

Rommel's advance was halted in May at Hellfire Pass in Egypt, and the British attempted a counterattack in June. However, Rommel out-manouvered them, and the attack failed. The battle lines fluctuated in the following months, but Rommel's logistical problems persisted and worsened when Hitler shifted his attention to other fronts.

Recognizing the impracticality of a direct invasion of Britain, Hitler opted for naval tactics to besiege the country, utilizing U-boats to disrupt British supplies. The Royal Navy, although powerful, struggled to update its tactics to combat U-boats effectively. Radar technology, developed urgently, proved instrumental in attacking U-boats on the surface.

In parallel, Italy initiated the North African campaign and attacked Greece to establish itself as an equal power to Germany. Hitler developed plans to invade both Greece and Yugoslavia, quickly overpowering Yugoslavia and Greece. The German paratrooper attack on Crete resulted in the fall of the island after intense fighting. However, Hitler was appalled by the high costs and never ordered a large-scale airborne invasion again.

By mid-1941, Nazi Germany seemed unstoppable, having defeated France, Greece, and pushed back British forces in North Africa. Hitler's ultimate goal was the destruction of the Soviet Union, but his generals advised against invading without provocation. Nevertheless, Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa, a massive invasion of the Soviet Union, despite ongoing British resistance and the need to secure the Middle East for oil supplies. The surprise attack initially overwhelmed the Soviet Army, but the harsh Russian winter and logistical challenges hindered the German advance near Moscow.

The Soviet Union relocated its major production facilities eastward, beyond the reach of German bombers, allowing them to build tanks and aircraft without disruption. They also received supplies from Britain through Arctic convoys. By the end of 1941, Hitler found himself engaged on multiple fronts, including Britain, North Africa, and the Soviet Union. Simultaneously, a Japanese fleet approached Pearl Harbor, leading to the subsequent attack on the American naval base.