Discuss two psychological explanations of personality

This essay will discuss psychodynamic and behaviourist perspectives on personality. It will determine whether these perspectives are similar or different. In addition, this essay will identify if personality is a psychodynamic or a behaviourist construct.

Personality is built from individual psychological and behavioural characteristics. A person’s life shows distinctive patterns of behaviour through thought, feeling and emotion which becomes adaptable. Peterson (1992) explained that personality is an integrated part of an individual. It is not materialistic, such as possessions or status. Several psychologists have devoted their work to exploring the psychological explanations of personality. There have been explanations from a biological, a behaviourist, a cognitive and a psychodynamic perspective. It includes theories from Nelson-Jones, Howard, Bruer, Freud, Jung, and Andler. Other contrasting theorists include Pavlov, Skinner, and Andover.

“Personality can be defined as consistent behaviour patterns and intrapersonal processes originating within the individual.” (Burger, 2014).

Personality uses ideological perspectives from psychologists to validate their explanations. It has caused many debates as some have proven psychodynamic approaches target the unconscious mind. For example, wishes and fears that we do not know to exist. Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, suggests one of many theories, such as instincts represent somatic and biological pressure on the brain. His theory divides instincts into two groups: eros and destructive (Nelson-Jones, 2010). However, behavioural theorists such as Ivan Pavlov suggested that classical conditioning was effective, whether the behavioural perspective implicated personality. A dog would know when it was time to be fed if someone rang a bell. With time, the dog would associate the bell with food, causing him to salivate. It is a conditioned response (Andover, 2013).

Psychodynamic theorists suggest it is a developmental theory. However, it incorporates the idea of innate and instinctual drives. It combines early experiences and ‘phantasy’ to build a person’s inner world (Howard, 2017). In other words, ‘phantasy’ refers to the unconscious process. However, Luyton et al. (2015) describe many assumptions about psychopathology that support the psychodynamic approach. For example, our current relationships create early caring relationships. Thus, they shape how we perceive the world. In addition, there is a deep root between early psychological development and later experience. It explains the nature or cause of one’s personality.

Bruer (2014) created the foundation of psychoanalysis which influenced the work of Freud. Bruer presented a study on how he would treat a hysterical woman, known as Anna O. Due to significant complications in Anna O’s life, hallucinations occurred. There was a communication breakdown between Anna O and Bruer as she could not recall her memories while in her delirious state. Anna O discovered that through hypnosis, it could return to a state of consciousness. She could remember her memories. However, this experiment was only conducted on Anna O. Therefore, Bruer based his findings on how one person reacted in their state of unconsciousness and consciousness. There may also be some confusion as hypnosis is a form of cognitive and behavioural therapy. It made the psychodynamic approach very versatile.

However, Jung (1912/1916) rejected many of Freud’s theories. For example, his emphasis on infant sexuality. Although Jung refrained from cancelling Freud’s idea of id, ego, and superego, he initiated the collective conscious. It led to no empirical evidence. Human's share. Biologically, this approach was considered psychodynamic. He emphasized the idea of evolving from pre-human species to homo sapiens. He proposes that personality through evolution occurs via the Myers-Briggs type indicator. Detailed questionnaires are there to impose characteristics. It made it fair and non-biased. It is an efficient way of obtaining information. Jung used Freud’s theory as a basis but disregarded some of his theories (Gaines, 2019). From Freud’s perspective, Jung portrayed jealousy. Adler (2019) was also a follower and impressionist of Freud. He focused primarily on individual psychology by using psychodynamic theories. He disagreed with Freud’s theory of sexual urges from birth. However, it also differs from Jung’s theory.

In contrast, Andler (2013), who made different contributions to the psychodynamic theory of personality, disregards Freud’s theory. His testimony, the psychology of finality, focuses on the cause of something rather than seeing the reality principle. For example, if a child told their parents a lie, someone should not just ask why they lied. They should understand what their aim was for that lie and where they see it going. As a result, individuals can understand, consciously or unconsciously, what the end goal would be. Adler's theory of the psychology of finality considers the effectiveness and advantage over other forms of psychology. For example, the revelation of such topics leads to determinism and pessimism. Finality focuses on optimism and achievement. One will constantly forget information if they see it as embarrassing. However, unlike Freud, Andler does not imply rules to his theory. He believes that dreams should not necessarily be understood, except to describe the entirety of the personality. (Ganz & Madelaine, 2013). For Andler, he imposes it as a trial project, better known as probeweiser Anschlag. Although Adler’s theory has a significant contribution, especially to a psychodynamic approach, his theory has few limitations. It has created a diverse attempt because many other psychologists who may have conflicting views. Hence the limitations.

The behaviourist approach explains personality in terms of how the behavioural construct influences human behaviour. Skinner, known for his influence on behaviourism, argued that intimate conversations would be acknowledged more clearly if there was consistent emotional language. However, other psychologists disagree with this concept (Blechman & Delamater,2013). They thought his ideological approach was simplistic. It portrayed that modern research was profuse (Blechman & Delamater, 2013). For example, much like Pavlovian conditioning, Skinner describes operant conditioning. It suggested that Skinner should rename his theory. It was known as a way of coping with environmental conditions. However, it was simple. Behaviour functions accordingly depending on the situation. For example, someone’s pupil can change its size. It is the reflection of the light by looking directly at it. It is automatic and without specialist training (Blackman, 2017). Skinner argued that a person becomes an automaton, robot, puppet, or machine. Nevertheless, criticism flooded regarding this statement. It would endorse free will. For example, to embrace environmental determination, it would be known as automatons. These responses would alter the automaton. It would contradict Skinner’s operant conditioning. Its theory also has limitations regarding complex human behaviour. An example of this, it is unlikely to fit all human behaviour into an operant pattern. For example, a child says to his teacher that the moon is about 24,000 miles from the Earth. Although this statement is correct, the child had no recollection of retaining this information beforehand or even being told about this fact (O’Donohue & Ferguson, 2001). It presents how operant conditioning has weaknesses and strengths in determining whether a behaviourist approach shows a positive attribution.

The behaviourist perspective is crucial. Its theory is to determine whether it affects the personality. Skinner stated controlled behaviour is from the environment (Bentham, 2002). A primary school teacher oversees a year three class. A pupil does not like sitting in his seat and is destructive. He is constantly wandering around. It insinuates that the pupil only misbehaves when they do not have attention. Skinner did not want to enforce punishment in the classroom. In this case, the pupil would have been given a reward with attention where they are doing something positive. Whereas, when they are doing something, they are not supposed to do, the best outcome would be to ignore their disruptive behaviour. It would make learning more effective. Skinner believes children should be active in their learning process (Bentham, 2002).

A most recent example of Skinner’s influence was in the 2021 Coronavirus outbreak. According to BBC News, the lockdown has impacted the pupils' discipline and keeping order. However, the National Education Union (NEU) disagrees with this comment. They believe the outbreak has affected the pupils’ mental health and high-pressure curriculum. They suggested that looking deeper into why a child misbehaves and its relevance to their wellbeing is most effective. However, from a psychodynamic viewpoint, school refusal can have a negative effect on a child’s mental health and well-being (Christogiorgos & Giannakopoulos, 2014). It can bring conflict with immediate family, the school, and the community. It can cause emotional distress on the child, which may relate to unresolved dependency issues with the mother (Christogiorgos & Giannakopoulos, 2014).

On the contrary, Watson admired Freud’s psychoanalytical theory. He believed that emotions transfer during clinical settings. For example, clients will express their feelings to their therapist. After this, these feelings expressed will be made available to them. A study, known as the most controversial study in psychology history, was conducted on an 11-month-old infant. It was called ‘Little Albert’ named after the infant. It was there to examine anxiety in the infant by using non-stimulating things. For example, they used a white rat and then added various white furry objects. However, it was unknown to the psychologists that the infant reacted negatively to loud noises. It explained the repeated sound of a gong as an unconditioned stimulus (Gaines, 2019). It shows a different outlook on the behaviourist perspective compared to Skinner’s theory.

Psychodynamic and behaviourist approaches to personality influence are both supported in this essay. For example, according to psychodynamic theory, it combines early childhood experiences with the inner world. Bruer, initiated an experiment on Anna O’s life to examine why she could not recall memories while in a hallucinations trance. However, Bruer only conducted on females, so it was considered biased. Furthermore, he did not show consideration whether his hypnosis theory was bordering on cognitive and behavioural therapy. It would have been a combination of different experiments for this outcome.

Although Jung’s theory provides a better understanding of the psychodynamic approach between Freud and Adler. For example, the Myer-Briggs Type Indicator. Questionnaires are detailed and can prove where most effective. However, Adler’s perspective showed a contrasting approach. He focused on the personality of fidelity and refuted Freud’s ideological perspective. For example, Adler suggested that someone may forget certain aspects as it is embarrassing. Adler’s ideas were constructive, but they neglected the limitations that many critics saw. For example, dismissal of rules. Many rules may have not been followed accordingly, leaving the experiment to lack validity and create a bias atmosphere.

In behaviourist approaches, Skinner suggested using a structured approach. If a student is misbehaving in a classroom, you should not reward them for their behaviour. It would be deemed inappropriate. They note that you should ignore them. However, when they are behaving, you should reward their behaviour with attention. In time this would allow the pupil to follow the rules and to become less disruptive. By ignoring them, pupils will realise poor behaviour will have consequences. For example, no attention or no reward. Although, many critics rushed to criticise Skinner's approach. An example of this, Skinner’s operant conditioning is contradictory. He constantly addresses this theory without taking into consideration there may be no predictions. For example, a child may know Earth is 24,000 miles away from the moon. No one has ever mentioned this fact to them, and the child may have never heard of it before.

In most recent news, Skinner's theory played a vital role through the 2021 Coronavirus outbreak. It suggested that students would misbehave at school due to their affected mental health because of this ordeal. Rather than punishing the pupils, educators should begin to understand the reality of their mental health and wellbeing.

This essay concludes by defending the construct of personality. Behavioural analysis, as well as psychodynamic analysis, have been applied to it. Other areas such as cognitive and biological can be explored. In this essay, a psychodynamic perspective describes the experiences used and the influence of psychoanalysis. Various theorists, including Jung and Freud, offered opposing explanations. However, behaviourists such as Pavlov and Skinner took a different approach. Among their theories were operant conditioning and classical conditioning. Pavlov tested whether dogs salivated when they heard a bell in his experiment. Psychodynamic and behaviourist approaches have compelling arguments for their respective perspectives.

References:

Blackman, D. (2017). Operant Conditioning (1st ed.). Taylor and Francis. Retrieved 23 November 2021 from https://www.perlego.com/book/1496925/operant-conditioning-pdf (Original work published 29 September 2017)

Burger, J.M (2014). Personality (9th ed). Cengage Learning EMEA. Retrieved 15 November 2021 from https://www.perlego.com/book/2032571/personality-pdf (Original work published 2014)

Christogiorgos, S & Giannakopoulos, G. (2014). Abstract. School refusal and the parent-children relationship: a psychodynamic perspective. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15289168.2014.937976

Davey, G., Sterling, C., & Field, A. (2014). Complete Psychology (2nd ed.). Taylor and Francis. Retrieved 12 November 2021 from https://www.perlego.com/book/2192506/complete-psychology-pdf (Original work published 25 September 2014)

Demorest, A. (2014). Psychology’s Grand Theorists (1st ed.). Taylor and Francis. Retrieved 20 November 2021 from https://www.perlego.com/book/1547435/psychologys-grand-theorists-pdf (Original work published 8 April 2014)

Gaines, S. (2019). Personality Psychology (1st ed.). Taylor and Francis. Retrieved 20 November 2021 from https://www.perlego.com/book/1604131/personality-psychology-pdf (Original work published 10 October 2019)

Ganz, & Madelaine. (2013). The Psychology Of Alfred Adler (1st ed.). Taylor and Francis. Retrieved 21 November 2021 from https://www.perlego.com/book/1679681/the-psychology-of-alfred-adler-pdf (Original work published 5 November 2013)

Howard, S. (2017). Skills in Psychodynamic Counselling & Psychotherapy (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications. Retrieved 20 November 2021 from https://www.perlego.com/book/1431636/skills-in-psychodynamic-counselling-psychotherapy-pdf (Original work published 9 February 2017)

Nelson-Jones, R. (2010). Six Key Approaches to Counselling and Therapy (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications. Retrieved 15 November 2021 from https://www.perlego.com/book/2801014/six-key-approaches-to-counselling-and-therapy-pdf (Original work published 10 December 2010)

Newround (2021, April 7) Behaviour ‘out of control’ in schools after lockdown, says Education Secretary. BBC Newsround. https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/56660996

O’Donohue, W., & Ferguson, K. (2001). The Psychology of B F Skinner (1st ed.). SAGE Publications. Retrieved 23 November 2021 from https://www.perlego.com/book/1004577/the-psychology-of-b-f-skinner-pdf (Original work published 15 March 2001)

Peggy Andover. (2013). The Difference Between Classical and Operant Conditioning (Video). Ted Talk. https://www.ted.com/talks/peggy_andover_the_difference_between_classical_and_operant_conditioning?language=en#t-138322

Richelle, M. (2016). B F Skinner (1st ed.). Taylor and Francis. Retrieved 23 November 2021 from https://www.perlego.com/book/1556192/b-f-skinner-pdf (Original work published 1 April 2016)

[author missing]. (2013). Emotions and the Family (1st ed.). Taylor and Francis. Retrieved 23 November 2021 from https://www.perlego.com/book/1547663/emotions-and-the-family-pdf (Original work published 16 December 2013)

Further reading:

[author missing]. (2020). The Wiley Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences, Models and Theories (1st ed.). Wiley. Retrieved 23 November 2021 from https://www.perlego.com/book/2010394/the-wiley-encyclopedia-of-personality-and-individual-differences-models-and-theories-pdf (Original work published 30 November 2020)

Haslam, N., Smillie, L., & Song, J. (2017). An Introduction to Personality, Individual Differences and Intelligence (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications. Retrieved 23 November 2021 from https://www.perlego.com/book/1431381/an-introduction-to-personality-individual-differences-and-intelligence-pdf (Original work published 13 February 2017)

Kline, P. (2013). Personality (1st ed.). Taylor and Francis. Retrieved 23 November 2021 from https://www.perlego.com/book/1614164/personality-pdf (Original work published 5 September 2013)

Lindsay, S. (2013). Handbook of Applied Dog Behavior and Training, Etiology and Assessment of Behavior Problems (1st ed.). Wiley. Retrieved 23 November 2021 from https://www.perlego.com/book/1006717/handbook-of-applied-dog-behavior-and-training-etiology-and-assessment-of-behavior-problems-pdf (Original work published 17 May 2013)