The Rise and Fall of the Mughal Empire

It's the year 1526 in what we now know as Northern India, and a monumental clash is about to unfold. Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi faces off against a prince from Central Asia, Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur. To quell this looming threat, the Sultan musters his war elephants for battle. However, as history tells it, Babur's cannons and muskets unleash a series of explosions that startle the elephants. In a tragic twist of fate, the Sultan's own army is trampled under the mighty weight of these magnificent creatures.

Babur, a descendant of renowned conquerors, had long held aspirations of establishing his own empire. Struggling to find a foothold among the ambitious Central Asian princes, he redirected his gaze towards India. It was there that his descendants would leave an indelible mark, constructing the Mughal Empire—an opulent and formidable state that would rank among the wealthiest and most powerful of its time. In fact, the Mughal Empire housed nearly a quarter of the global population during the early modern era.

Babur's life was tragically cut short, a mere four years after that fateful battle. Yet, through his own memoirs and the works of his descendants, his legacy would be immortalized in vibrant hues. His daughter, Gulbadan, chronicled a particular anecdote in her memoirs—a tale of Babur's transition from drinking wine to abstaining. Filling a newly-built pool with lemonade instead of wine, he showcased his newfound resolve.

Babur's grandson, Akbar, emerged as a pivotal figure in consolidating Mughal power. He implemented measures to protect peasants, leading to increased productivity and greater tax revenue. Additionally, Akbar embarked on military campaigns that expanded the empire's territory. Princes who pledged loyalty were rewarded, while those who resisted faced brutal consequences—often resulting in their demise and that of their subjects.

The Mughals' conquests granted them access to bustling port cities along the Indian Ocean. This facilitated lucrative trade connections with Arab, Chinese, Ottoman, and European merchants, which brought incalculable wealth to the empire. Alongside silver, these trade networks introduced new crops from the Americas, further enhancing the Mughals' prosperity.

As a Muslim ruler presiding over a diverse and multiethnic empire, Akbar worked diligently to foster internal cohesion. To this end, he appointed members of the Hindu majority to prominent positions within his government, even marrying a Hindu bride. Moreover, Akbar distributed translated copies of the ancient Indian epic poem, the "Mahabharata," to his Muslim nobles. In an effort to encourage religious tolerance, he hosted lively debates where followers of various faiths defended their beliefs. Although these debates were often intellectual exercises, Portuguese Jesuit missionaries, who had recently arrived in India, were disappointed in their inability to convert Akbar to Christianity.

The Mughals left an indelible mark on India through their architectural marvels. One such wonder is the Taj Mahal, a testament to their refined craftsmanship. Additionally, the Red Fort—a colossal palace spanning three kilometers and housing an impressive 50,000 people—captivated the imagination with its magnificent Peacock Throne adorned in gold and jewels. Remarkably, constructing the throne alone took seven years of meticulous craftsmanship.

During its early years, the Mughal Empire witnessed stability under the reign of only six rulers across a span of 180 years. This period of relative tranquility was shattered when Emperor Jahangir grappled with alcohol and opioid addiction. In a display of strength and leadership, his wife Nur Jahan assumed the role of co-ruler. When a treacherous general captured Jahangir in an attempted coup, Nur Jahan negotiated his release and rallied the army to quash the rebellion. She even led a hunting party to track down a village-terrorizing tiger, earning her the awe-inspiring title of a "tiger-slayer" in a poet's verse.

However, the empire faced mounting challenges after the death of its sixth emperor, Aurangzeb, in 1707. Over the next 21 years, seven emperors ascended the throne, highlighting the larger political, economic, social, and environmental crises that plagued the empire throughout the 18th century. In response to this turmoil, regional leaders began refusing to pay taxes and asserting their independence from Mughal control.

Seizing the opportunity, the British East India Company extended military support to these regional rulers, effectively bolstering its own political influence. Eventually, the company gained direct control over Bengal, one of India's wealthiest regions. By the 19th century, the East India Company held significant sway in Indian politics and maintained a formidable standing army, which included Indian troops.

The year 1857 marked a critical turning point. Indian troops, aiming to expel the British and restore Mughal influence, rose in revolt. However, the British government intervened, quashing the rebellion and replacing the East India Company's rule with direct colonial governance. The last Mughal emperor was deposed, exiled, and with that, the Mughal Empire's three-century reign drew to a close.