16th & 17th Century in U.S History

The 16th and 17th centuries marked a significant period of 200 years that laid the foundation for the establishment of the United States of America. It commenced with Spanish conquistadors embarking on expeditions in the southeastern United States, and concluded with the firm establishment of 12 English colonies along the Atlantic seaboard. These colonies had firmly embraced the principles of self-governance, democracy, and religious tolerance.

In this very location, on the US Virgin Islands, Christopher Columbus landed during his second voyage to the New World. Four hundred and twenty-five years later, these islands would become part of the United States of America, a nation born out of the grandest colonization endeavor witnessed by the world. The colonization of the North American continent was set in motion a year prior to Columbus' first voyage of discovery.

Columbus himself remains an enigmatic figure, with debates surrounding his origins persisting to this day. Legend has it that Columbus had to convince King Ferdinand II and Queen Isabella of Spain to finance his ambitious plan of outfitting three ships - the Nina, the Pinta, and his flagship, the Santa Maria - for a westward voyage in search of the Far East. This audacious plan stood in contrast to the prevailing practices of other nations, which involved sailing eastward around Africa in their quest for a sea route to India and China. As a result, Columbus embarked on the most renowned sea route in history, the route to the New World. His voyages directly led to the subsequent colonization of North America.

On August 3rd, 1492, Columbus set sail from Palos, Spain. After a voyage spanning 69 days, he and his crew landed on the island known today as San Salvador. Columbus mistakenly believed he had reached India and consequently named the Caribbean islands the Indies. In his pursuit of gold, Columbus journeyed from San Salvador to present-day Cuba, then Haiti and the Dominican Republic. On March 15, 1493, Columbus completed his voyage and returned to Spain.

His subsequent voyages brought him to the US Virgin Islands, where he interacted with the native Islanders during his third voyage from May 1498 to October 1500. On his fourth and final journey from May 1502 to November 1504, Columbus sailed to Honduras, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Panama. Following Columbus' last voyage, Spanish conquistadors ventured throughout the southern region of North America, with Ponce de Leon's landing in Florida in 1509 marking the beginning. Other European nations such as England, France, the Netherlands, and Sweden also joined in the colonization efforts. This collective endeavor spanned over two centuries, as they sought to colonize a vast and untamed land, ultimately leading to the establishment of the United States of America.

Presently, the beaches along Florida's Atlantic coast serve as a retreat for vacationers seeking respite from the harsh northern winters. However, it was Hispanic explorers who first set foot upon these pristine sands almost 500 years ago. A glance at a map of the southern coastline of the United States reveals a legacy of Hispanic names, such as St. Augustine, Punta Gorda, Pensacola, Galveston, and Corpus Christi. These names were bestowed by intrepid Hispanic explorers who sought not only a western sea passage to China, but also suitable lands for establishing colonies that would enable Spain to settle the New World. Among the pioneers of these explorations was Juan Ponce de Leon, who became the first European to step onto the southern coast of what would later become the United States of America.

Ponce de Leon was born in Santa Paws, Spain, around 1460 and participated in the wars against the Moors in Grenada, southern Spain, to drive them out. In 1493, he joined Columbus's second expedition to the West Indies and remained in the Caribbean, aligning himself with the Hispanic conquistadors who sought fortune in the New World. Conquistadors were military leaders who invaded foreign lands and conquered their inhabitants. Ponce de Leon belonged to a long-standing tradition that traced its roots back thousands of years to figures like Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, and William the Conqueror.

When Ponce de Leon heard about gold on the neighboring island of Puerto Rico, he organized an expedition and successfully conquered it. In 1509, he was appointed governor of Puerto Rico and established the oldest European settlement on the island. Four years later, Ponce de Leon led another military expedition in search of the island of Bimini in the Bahamas. Along the way, he landed on the east coast of Florida, near what is now St. Augustine, and claimed the territory for Spain. He named this land "La Florida" in honor of the Easter Sunday celebration known as "Pascua Florida," or the Feast of Flowers. Later, the name was shortened to Florida when it became the 27th state of the United States.

Legend has it that Ponce de Leon was in search of the mythical Fountain of Youth, which was believed to grant eternal life and health to those who drank from its miraculous waters. However, such tales are fanciful. Like many conquistadors of his time, Ponce de Leon was primarily motivated by the pursuit of gold, although he did not find any in Florida. Nevertheless, he did discover something equally valuable—the Gulf Stream current. In the following decades, Spanish galleons laden with treasures from Mexico and Peru would utilize the Gulf Stream for their return journeys to Spain.

Ponce de Leon made two more unsuccessful attempts to find the island of Bimini. During his final expedition in 1521, he and a force of 200 men landed on the west coast of Florida. They were attacked by Native American warriors, and Ponce de Leon was wounded by an arrow. He later succumbed to his wounds and died in July 1521 in Havana, Cuba. He was buried in San Juan, Puerto Rico.

Today, the southeastern United States is a populous region known as the Deep South and served as a stronghold of the Confederacy. However, five hundred years ago, it was characterized by swamps, marshes, primeval forests, and formidable Native American tribes. This mysterious and unexplored area deterred Hispanic conquistadors from venturing into it. Nevertheless, one man, following in the tradition of Spain's warrior explorers, dared to lead an expedition through this untamed wilderness. That man was Hernando de Soto, considered one of the most renowned European explorers since Marco Polo.

In fact, many towns and counties throughout the southeastern US bear de Soto's name. His expedition, which would not be surpassed until Lewis and Clark's Corps of Discovery two hundred and sixty years later, consisted of 600 men. They traversed ten southern states and ventured as far north as Indiana and Michigan. However, it was in present-day Florida where de Soto landed in 1539 to commence his expedition, driven by a desire for wealth and glory for Spain.

By 1530, Spain's first generation of conquistadors, led by Hernan Cortes, had expanded the empire westward to include all of Mexico and Central America, where they discovered immense riches in gold and silver. Enticed by rumors of golden cities, lost empires, and vast treasures in unexplored regions of North and South America, the conquistadors were driven to seek even greater wealth. This led to the emergence of a second generation of explorer warriors, including Francisco Pizarro, Francisco Coronado, and Hernando de Soto. Among these explorers, de Soto was considered the greatest, responsible for claiming the southeastern United States for Spain.

De Soto, born around 1500 in Spain, embarked on his journey at the age of fourteen when he traveled to the West Indies. In 1531, he joined Francisco Pizarro and participated in the assault on the Incan Empire. Recognizing de Soto's capabilities, Pizarro appointed him as his second-in-command, and de Soto acquired a significant share of the treasure, amounting to 18,000 ounces of gold. Returning to Spain in 1535, de Soto settled in Sevilla and became a wealthy gentleman. However, his retirement was short-lived.

Driven by the twin dreams of finding gold in Florida and discovering a northwest sea passage to China, de Soto sold all his belongings and prepared for an expedition to the New World. In 1537, King Charles I of Spain appointed de Soto as the governor of Cuba and granted him the authority to conquer Florida. He also permitted de Soto to choose any land he desired in Florida for his own plantation. Two years later, de Soto arrived on the west coast of Florida on May 30, 1539, ready to fulfill his aspirations.

Over the next four years, de Soto's remarkable expedition of discovery covered more than 4,000 miles, exploring the southeastern parts of what would later become the United States. His journey took him through Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Missouri, and Louisiana. Remarkably, he even crossed the Ohio River into Indiana and Michigan. De Soto meticulously documented his findings, providing detailed firsthand accounts of the immense cities built by the mound builders, powerful Indian tribes, and vast empires.

De Soto's expedition used the phases of the Moon as a means of dating the events and discoveries, allowing future readers of the journals to precisely identify the expedition's important findings and locations. However, despite his extensive travels, de Soto did not find gold or a northwest passage to China. Moreover, the encounters between the expedition and native tribes resulted in disastrous conflicts, leading to continuous warfare with everyone they encountered.

Tragically, in June 1542, de Soto succumbed to a fever and died on the banks of the Mississippi River, where he was laid to rest. Interestingly, two centuries later, when Europeans returned to the area, the Indian cities and tribes described by de Soto had vanished. The powerful Mississippi and Indian culture he had encountered had been replaced by new cultures such as the Choctaw, Cherokee, and Creek.

For a long time, de Soto did not receive the recognition he deserved for the scope of his remarkable journey of discovery. However, his journals survived, providing a unique early account of a region that would become part of the Spanish Empire and eventually the American South. Despite the disastrous end to de Soto's expedition, with less than 300 survivors out of the initial 600 men, his journals remained as a testament to his extraordinary exploration. Such was the greatness of Hernando de Soto that Walter P. Chrysler chose to honor him by naming a car after him in 1928.The US automaker honored the famous explorer by naming one of its premier model lines "De Soto." The vast desert southwest of America was considered the last frontier for the conquistadors, the final wave of warrior explorers who undertook the treacherous journey across the Atlantic Ocean in search of fortune in the untamed New World. Over 200 years would pass before French or English adventurers would set foot again on the lands discovered by these Spanish explorers. One such daring individual was Francisco Vásquez de Coronado.

By 1540, Spain had expanded its territorial claims in North America to include Texas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Nevada, and California, thanks to the audacity of explorers like Coronado. By that time, Spain had established a presence in the New World encompassing all of Mexico, Central America, and parts of South America. However, the Spanish conquistadors were not yet finished with their explorations. Hernando de Soto was already traversing the southeastern region of North America, while the Southwest, with its alluring tales of effortless riches, beckoned Francisco Coronado to embark on his destined journey.

Born into a noble family in Salamanca, Spain, in 1510, Coronado sailed to Mexico at the age of 25 as an assistant to the new Viceroy, Don Antonio de Mendoza. He settled in Mexico City, where he married the daughter of the colonial treasurer and eventually became the governor of Nueva Galicia province. In 1538, Coronado set out from this position of authority on the expedition that would bring him everlasting fame, as well as disappointment.

Rumors of the golden cities of Cibola and Quivira had circulated throughout Mexico since Hernan Cortes's conquest of the Aztecs in 1521. In 1539, new accounts of these enigmatic cities reached Coronado through Fray Marcos de Niza, a priest, accompanied by an African slave named Esteban. They had journeyed through the Southwest and described rich kingdoms with elephants, camels, and incredible wealth. In 1540, Coronado was determined to make one final grand discovery for Spain and embarked on an expedition with 300 Spanish adventurers, 1,000 Indian allies, and 1,500 pack animals into the southwestern deserts and southern plains of North America.

Over the next two years, Coronado and his expedition traveled through New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas, and eastern Kansas, coming within a couple hundred miles of Hernando de Soto's expedition. Had the two explorers crossed paths, the history of North America might have unfolded quite differently. Meanwhile, one of Coronado's captains, Melchior Diaz, explored the Colorado River from the Gulf of California, venturing as far west as the Imperial Valley region of present-day California. However, neither Coronado's expedition nor de Soto's would discover any golden cities or mineral wealth.

Nevertheless, the chronicle of Coronado's adventure, published after his death, provided valuable information about an unexplored area of the New World. This region would not be traversed again until the 18th century when the French Malé brothers entered the Rocky Mountains in 1741. By that time, Coronado's exploits had prompted Spain to colonize the land north of the Rio Grande River, stretching from Texas to California. Finally, in 1848, the land of Coronado's discovery became part of the United States of America. Although Coronado returned to Mexico empty-handed, he continued to be a man of influence in Mexico City until his death in 1554. Coronado succumbed to his injuries sustained during his arduous expedition in 1540.

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The formidable Castillo de San Marcos, an expansive Spanish fortress, was constructed between 1670 and 1695 with the primary purpose of safeguarding the oldest enduring European settlement in the United States. Remarkably, 55 years before the pilgrims commemorated the inaugural Thanksgiving and a staggering 211 years prior to the establishment of the United States, an enterprising and visionary Hispanic naval officer named Don Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, accompanied by 800 soldiers and settlers, arrived on the eastern coast of Florida. In the year 1565, they established the settlement of Saint Augustine, thus establishing the first colony in what would eventually become the United States of America. Despite 70 years of Spanish colonization in the Caribbean, the North American continent remained largely unexplored. This state of affairs was transformed by the extraordinary efforts of Don Pedro Menéndez de Avilés.

Don Pedro, unlike the conquistadors, perceived Spain's incursion into North America as an opportunity for permanent settlement. Interestingly, although Spain had asserted its claim over Florida in 1513 through Ponce de Leon's exploration and once again in 1539 with Hernando de Soto, no colonies had been established on this part of the North American mainland. However, that changed when France established the Fort Caroline colony on Florida's St. Johns River in 1560. This French presence posed a threat to Spain's treasure ships, which sailed along Florida's coastline en route to Spain. In response, Spain's King Philip II dispatched his foremost admiral, Menéndez, along with 2,000 sailors, soldiers, and their families to Florida with the mandate to colonize the land and expel pirates and settlers from other nations.

The original plan was for the Spanish Armada to blockade the St. Johns River in Florida and launch a direct assault on the French colony. However, the French had already blockaded the river, forcing Menéndez and his troops to land at a smaller harbor south of Saint Caroline. Menéndez christened this new landing site as St. Augustine. Yet, Menéndez's encounters with the French were far from over. The French explorer, Jean Ribault, gathered his ships to attack the Spanish colony, but a tempest wrecked his fleet near present-day Daytona Beach. Seizing this advantageous circumstance, Menéndez and 500 men launched an assault on the French fort at Saint Caroline, massacring all the soldiers and sparing only the women and children.

With the French threat neutralized, Menéndez turned his attention towards the task of settlement. He extensively explored the area and established a series of forts along Florida's coastline. Diplomatic treaties were forged with numerous indigenous tribes, enabling trade for essential provisions. Simultaneously, Menéndez extended invitations to missionaries to establish Catholic missions throughout Florida, with the aim of converting Native Americans to the Catholic faith. Outposts were also constructed on St. Helena Island in South Carolina and Chesapeake Bay.

Menéndez departed Florida in 1567 but returned once more in 1571. However, he passed away in Spain on September 17th, 1574. Nevertheless, his vision left an indelible Spanish legacy in Florida, which is still palpable in the city he founded, St. Augustine. This city, along with its fortress, safeguarded Spain's Caribbean colonies against English invaders well into the 17th century. The Roanoke colony remains one of the most perplexing mysteries of the 16th century, as an entire settlement of 117 English settlers vanished without a trace.

However, the true significance of Roanoke goes beyond its enigmatic disappearance. It owes its existence to one of England's most visionary figures, Sir Walter Raleigh. Without Raleigh's unwavering determination to establish colonies, England may never have settled the Atlantic seaboard and subsequently asserted dominance over North America. Since Spain had relayed tales of extraordinary wealth in the New World, Europe had been captivated by the idea of exploiting the ripe riches waiting to be seized. While a few daring mariners, such as England's Sir Francis Drake, plundered Spanish treasure fleets traversing the Atlantic from the Caribbean, the responsibility of colonizing North America fell upon Sir Walter Raleigh.

Raleigh, a renowned figure of the swashbuckling heroes of the 16th century, was born in 1552. He emerged as an explorer, soldier, and writer, gaining favor with England's astute monarch, Queen Elizabeth I, at the age of 28. Raleigh swiftly convinced the Queen that England needed a permanent settlement in North America to channel wealth back to the motherland. In 1584, Elizabeth granted Raleigh a charter to colonize North America and establish a base for raiding Spanish treasure fleets. Raleigh's initial expedition departed England in April 1585 and established a colony on Roanoke Island in Pamlico Sound, present-day North Carolina. Raleigh named the region Virginia in honor of Queen Elizabeth, the Virgin Queen. However, beset by illness and apprehension, the survivors returned to England in 1586, accompanied by Sir Francis Drake, who had been plundering Spanish ports in the Caribbean.

Undeterred, Raleigh initiated a second expedition a year later, comprising 117 colonists, including 17 women, who landed at the same location on Roanoke Island. Initially, the colony fared better than its predecessor. However, the invasion of England by the formidable Spanish Armada in 1588 resulted in a delay of much-needed supplies. When a supply ship finally returned in 1590, all the settlers had vanished, leaving behind only a post with the single word "Croatoan" carved into the wood. Thus, the 16th century concluded without an English colony in North America. Yet, thanks to Raleigh's foresight, that would soon change with the establishment of Jamestown in 1607.

Today, the United States stands as a formidable economic powerhouse, with its roots tracing back to the first permanent English settlement in North America, the Jamestown Colony. By the end of the 16th century, the prospects of English colonization in North America appeared grim, as our initial settlement endeavors faltered, exemplified by the inexplicable disappearance of Sir Walter Raleigh's Roanoke colony in 1590. In fact, England stood on the verge of being excluded from North America entirely. However, a bold and innovative business idea conceived by London merchants would alter the course of history. In 1606, these merchants formed the Virginia Company of London, a joint-stock company that aimed to spread financial risk in the colonization venture to Virginia. By diversifying their investments, the merchants could participate without jeopardizing their entire fortunes. This ingenious scheme laid the foundation for English colonization in North America and ultimately shaped American life, commerce, and governance.

In December 1606, the London Company dispatched a hundred male settlers, like those depicted in the accompanying image, on ships to embark on the perilous journey to the New World. In May of the following year, these colonists sailed up the James River and established Jamestown. The objective was to construct a settlement while simultaneously searching for a route to the Pacific Ocean and prospecting for gold. However, from the outset, the new colony was besieged by challenges. The heavily forested land was swampy and infested with malaria-carrying mosquitoes. Regrettably, the colonists neglected crucial tasks such as planting, plowing, and construction that were necessary for a prosperous colony. Instead, they devoted their efforts to the fruitless pursuit of gold.

Jamestown teetered on the brink of disaster, and the joint-stock company was on the verge of collapse when two young men altered the fortunes of the London Company. These individuals were planter John Rolfe II and Captain John Smith. By 1608, the twenty-seven-year-old Smith assumed command of the Virginia Colony. Born in 1580, he was a soldier who had fought against the Ottoman Turks in Hungary. Smith skillfully mapped the area and impressed the Indians, procuring food from them that prevented the settlers from starvation. He put an end to the feverish quest for gold and compelled the men to construct fortifications and cultivate Indian corn. John Smith's endeavors saved the settlement, and over the ensuing six years, it gradually expanded along the shores of the James River.

Although the colony began to thrive, and life, despite its challenges, became more normalized, it constantly teetered on the edge of economic failure for its London investors. There was no profitable trade to send back home. However, in 1612, John Rolfe II discovered a means to generate profit. Recognizing that tobacco, a product sweeping through Europe and creating smoke shops, could be cultivated in the New World, he adapted a Caribbean island strain of tobacco to Virginia's climate, resulting in a profitable enterprise. Consequently, the Virginia Company was able to strengthen its investment and initiate a new wave of emigration to the colony. The joint-stock company became the model for English colonization, ultimately leading to the control of the North American continent and the establishment of the United States of America. In essence, the remarkable economic success story of the Virginia Company would shape one aspect of the American character, just as colonial progress toward self-government would define the other.

The colonists' journey was arduous, with long and grueling days through a sun-drenched, arid, and barren desert, traversing lands occupied by Indian tribes who viewed travelers with suspicion. Their destination, uncertain in its capacity to sustain them and their families, offered no guarantees of success. Nevertheless, these courageous Hispanic men and women triumphed. They overcame famine, drought, and Indian raids to establish a thriving settlement, which would grow to become a prized possession in Spain's imperial dominion - Santa Fe. Today, visitors can easily traverse the magnificent landscapes of New Mexico, a region characterized by breathtaking scenery and remnants of ancient cultures. It still remains home to Native American pueblos. However, four centuries ago, it was a wild and untamed land that the first Hispanic colonists encountered. Success was far from guaranteed. In 1540, Francisco Coronado journeyed through northern New Mexico in search of the legendary golden city of Cibola. Although he did not discover any gold, Coronado brought back tales of potential wealth in northern New Mexico. Then, 55 years later, in 1595, King Philip II of Spain commissioned Juan de Onate, a Mexican silver mine owner, to colonize New Mexico and propagate Catholicism among the Native Americans.

He also appointed Juan de Oñate as the governor of the colony. Three years later, Oñate, an explorer and warrior in the vein of Cortez and Coronado, led a group comprising 500 soldiers, colonists, and Franciscan friars, along with 7,000 head of cattle, from Zacatecas in central Mexico across the Rio Grande River to New Mexico. By July 15, 1598, the colonists established the first capital of New Mexico at San Gabriel Pueblo in the northern Rio Grande Valley and immediately commenced the construction of missions to convert the indigenous population.

Similar to the English colonists at Jamestown, which followed nine years later in 1607, Oñate's expedition was divided into two factions. Historian James E. Ibe described the first faction as entrepreneurs who sought to profit through trade with the indigenous peoples and the search for gold. The other faction consisted of true colonists who aimed to establish ranches and farms, and create a thriving settlement. Initially, conditions were harsh, with cold weather and limited food supplies making survival challenging. Governor Oñate's military leadership was overbearing, leading to the breakaway of the settlers' faction, who petitioned to establish a new capital away from San Gabriel Pueblo.

The identity of the settlers' leader remains enigmatic, but it is likely that he was Juan Martínez de Montoya, an adventurous Castilian-born man described as tall, good-looking, and sporting a flat beard. Montoya had served as a captain under Oñate and was appointed as an alcalde or mayor of San Gabriel. The surviving records from that time indicate that in early 1608, Montoya founded a settlement at Santa Fe, known as Plaza de Santa Vanie. That same year, a new governor was appointed for New Mexico, and Juan de Oñate was recalled. The new governor, Don Pedro de Peralta, received orders to establish Montoya's Santa Fe settlement as the capital of New Mexico. Sometime in 1609, the new capital was named La Villa Real de la Santa Fe or the Royal City of the Holy Faith. With its establishment, the survival of the New Mexico colony was ensured. Santa Fe thrived and became a prominent city in Spain's northern provinces.

However, tensions between the Hispanic settlers and the Pueblo Indians continued to escalate. In 1680, led by a charismatic chief named Popé, the Pueblo Indians launched an attack on the Spanish settlers and missionaries, resulting in the death of over 400 individuals. The survivors fled south to present-day El Paso, Texas, where they established new settlements and missions. Hispanic control was not regained until 1692 when the New Mexican governor, Diego de Vargas, recaptured Santa Fe. By the time the Santa Fe Trail opened in 1821, the city had realized the dreams of those early colonists, becoming a thriving model of Hispanic business, trading, and ranching enterprises.

Moving on to another topic, the name by which she is most commonly known among Americans is Pocahontas, which was a nickname meaning "the naughty one" or "the spoiled one." Her real name was Matoaka. She was the daughter of Powhatan, the leader of the powerful Powhatan Confederacy of Indian nations. However, she was more than just a notable figure; she was a Renaissance woman who recognized that cooperation with the English colonists could improve the lives of her people.

During the arrival of the English at Jamestown in 1607, a chief known as Powhatan ruled over a nation that encompassed one-fifth of present-day Virginia and part of North Carolina. His chiefdom was part of a political Renaissance among American Indian nations in the Eastern woodlands. This Renaissance witnessed the emergence of coalitions such as the Powhatan Confederacy and leagues of friendship like the Iroquois League, which were alliances based on common language and shared interests, similar to the Algonquin Confederacy.

The English arrival at Jamestown caused concern for Powhatan and his followers, many of whom had experienced violent encounters with Spanish conquistadors. Tensions between the English newcomers and the indigenous Indians escalated rapidly towards the brink of war. The English sought to enlist the Indians to work for them in growing and harvesting corn, but Powhatan and others perceived the English as invaders who needed to be stopped.

The tensions reached a critical point when Captain John Smith, a leader of the Jamestown Colony, was captured. According to legend, Powhatan intended to kill the unfamiliar white man and send a message to the English. As Smith tells it, he was brought before the chief, with his head placed upon a rock. It was at this moment that Pocahontas risked her life to intervene and prevent the execution. Whether or not the legend is true, Pocahontas's actions brought about a shift in her father's perspective. In the years that followed, she became a true Renaissance figure, advocating for cooperation between the English settlers and the indigenous Indians. This cooperation ultimately contributed to the success of Jamestown and, subsequently, the formation of the United States of America.

Pocahontas went on to be baptized as a Christian and assumed the English name Rebecca. She married John Rolfe II, a prominent figure in the Jamestown Colony, and their union ushered in a period of peace between the colonists and the Powhatan Confederacy. Although this peace lasted only eight years, it provided sufficient time for the struggling colony to establish a firm foundation through the cultivation of tobacco. In the spring of 1616, Rolfe took Pocahontas to England, where she was celebrated as an Indian princess, met King James I, and gave birth to a son in March 1617. Sadly, at the young age of 21, Pocahontas fell ill and passed away before she could return to her homeland. She was laid to rest in England.

In her short life, Pocahontas proved to be an extraordinary Renaissance woman who extended friendship to the white settlers. Moving on to a different topic, in the 21st century, New York City has blossomed into a bustling metropolis with a population exceeding 8 million people. It is home to numerous art galleries, museums, theaters, and stands as the world's commercial and financial center. However, it all began as a dream conceived by the Dutch West India Company.

In 1609, Henry Hudson, an English navigator working for the Netherlands, sailed his ship, the Half Moon, up the Hudson River in search of a route to Asia. Instead, he stumbled upon an incredibly fertile river valley abundant in furs and possessing a natural harbor at its mouth, opening into the Atlantic. Five years later, Dutch explorer Adriaen Block's map of North America claimed the region as New Netherlands for the Netherlands. However, claiming territory also necessitated settlement. Consequently, in May 1624, the Dutch West India Company transported 30 families to land on what is now Governors Island. Additional families followed in the subsequent year, and Fort Amsterdam was constructed on Manhattan Island.

According to historical accounts, the director-general of the colony, Peter Minuit, is said to have acquired Manhattan Island from the Lenape Indians in 1636 in exchange for trade goods worth $24. Subsequently, Minuit went on to establish North America's first Swedish colony in present-day Wilmington, Delaware. The region that would later become the United States of America was already a melting pot of various cultures from the beginning, with the French situated to the northwest, the English to the north and south, and the Spanish in Florida.

New Netherlands was envisioned as a utopian colony, promoting religious freedom and the right to live according to one's conscience. In fact, this inclusive approach led to the government of New Netherlands granting full citizenship to Jewish settlers in 1655. The Dutch retained control of New Netherlands for 40 years until 1664 when King Charles II of England dispatched English frigates to New Amsterdam's Harbor, demanding the surrender of New Netherlands. Through negotiations led by the Dutch director-general Peter Stuyvesant, favorable terms were secured, preserving the utopian principles of Dutch governance. This ensured that the inhabitants of New Netherland would continue to enjoy the freedom to practice their religion.

Ultimately, these early Dutch principles would become integral to the diverse and liberty-oriented fabric of America. Charles II granted New Netherlands to his brother James, the Duke of York, to govern, and in 1675, the name was changed to New York.

In 1607, Englishmen embarked on ships bound for the New World, specifically the mid-Atlantic coast. Over the course of a century, their numbers grew to over 250,000, spread across 12 colonies. During this period, these pioneers of the United States would learn how to survive in an unfamiliar and hostile environment, establish various experiments in representative government, build a legal system, and engage in wars. They demonstrated both great religious tolerance and intolerance, displayed intense loyalty to the English monarchy, and at times, engaged in treasonous behavior.

In these first 100 years, the foundation for the grand adventure in self-government was laid by those who journeyed across the seas to places like Plymouth Plantation and Jamestown. Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in America, was established as a business venture of the Virginia Company. Unlike Spanish and Portuguese explorers to the south or the French to the north, the Virginia colonists did not find gold or furs, which turned out to be a blessing in disguise. This absence of immediate wealth compelled the colonists to create their own prosperity through independent commerce and industry.

Who were these early business adventurers? They came from various social classes, including noblemen and younger aristocratic sons seeking land and power, investors and merchants from the middle class looking for new opportunities, and impoverished individuals who arrived as indentured servants. Life for these settlers was arduous, and many succumbed to diseases and starvation. In fact, Jamestown teetered on the brink of failure until John Rolfe II sent the first shipment of tobacco to England in 1614, marking the beginning of a lucrative industry. That same year, private land ownership was instituted for the settlers, laying the groundwork for American democracy. In 1619, as the tobacco industry flourished, Virginia planters held the first legislative assembly in the New World known as the House of Burgesses. Its members enacted laws, marking the birth of democratic representative government.

In the following years, Virginia emerged as a leader in independence and democracy within the colonies. It was from the House of Burgesses that Patrick Henry delivered his renowned speech, including the immortal phrase, "Give me liberty or give me death." The most significant distinction between immigrants from England and those from other European countries was the religious diversity among the settlers.

The religious diversity among early colonial settlers encompassed Quakers, Catholics, and various denominations of Protestants. However, the most influential group was the Puritans. In 1620, they arrived on the Mayflower and established Plymouth Plantation, which later developed into the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The beliefs and practices of the Puritans had a profound impact on the formation of the American character and became the wellspring of American ideals such as liberty, human rights, self-government, education, and intellectual thought. As non-conformists, the Massachusetts Puritans frequently clashed with the monarchy, often disregarding directives from London. In fact, Massachusetts became an early hub of revolution as America progressed towards self-governance. Nevertheless, Puritanism had a darker side characterized by religious bigotry, as evidenced by the persecution and execution of Quakers and the infamous Salem witch trials of 1692.

Paradoxically, the religious persecution carried out by the Puritans in Massachusetts fostered religious tolerance in other colonies like Rhode Island, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. This religious turmoil and diversity in early colonial America played a pivotal role in shaping two crucial elements of American democracy: the separation of church and state and freedom of speech and expression. Disregarded by London, the colonists swiftly developed ideas of self-government. It was in Maryland, one of the colonies known for its religious tolerance, that a prototype of the US Constitution emerged in 1635. According to its Charter, Lord Baltimore, the proprietor of Maryland, was obligated to obtain the consent of the freemen of the colony for any legislation. In the 17th century, a freeman referred to any male who possessed the right to vote for representatives in a legislative assembly. Simultaneously, town meetings began to emerge throughout the colonies, where citizens gathered to discuss and decide on local matters such as taxes, education, public law, and charitable endeavors. These town meetings would eventually play a pivotal role in the revolution.

In 1638, colonial leader Thomas Hooker inaugurated a town meeting in Connecticut with the prophetic words, "The foundation of authority is laid in the free consent of the people." His belief in the importance of giving all men a voice and a vote stood in direct opposition to monarchy rule and was deemed treasonous. In 1669, the proprietors of the Carolina colonies issued the Fundamental Constitution, drafted by John Locke. This document provided a blueprint for government. One hundred and eighteen years later, the United States of America would adopt a permanent blueprint for government through the writing of the Constitution. Another notable blueprint emerged in 1680, known as William Penn's famous "Form of Government," which emphasized limitations on the governing process.

By the beginning of the 18th century, all English colonies had some form of representative government. The newfound religious tolerance and institutions of education cultivated an intelligentsia that grasped the foundations of English law, liberty, and property rights. These principles were initially expressed in the Magna Carta of 1215 and further clarified in the English Bill of Rights of 1689. Equally noteworthy in these first 100 years was what did not transpire. Largely left to their own devices by England, the colonies did not become theocracies, nor were they ruled by dictators or despots. They also did not transform into colonial fiefdoms granted by English kings.

As the 18th century dawned, the era of benign neglect towards the American colonies by the English Parliament came to an end. Parliament sought to exert a more active role in governance, but it was too late. A new era of self-rule by the people, for the people had commenced, and this movement could not be halted. It represented a new form of governance, unparalleled in history