The Self

Positive self-esteem is seen as a necessary part of a fulfilling life by many individuals (Crisp & Turner, 2010). According to Crisp and Turner (2010) self-esteem is a subjective evaluation performed by an individual on themselves and determined to be positive or negative. This evaluation can have major effects on how one approaches life and an individual’s psychological functioning. Positive self-esteem is when an individual holds themselves in high regard and focuses on the positive aspects of their life, the events that take place, and the things they do right (Crisp & Turner, 2010).

On the side of positive self-regard that positive self-esteem sits lies another form of self-assessment in the personality construct narcissism. Narcissism is considered a personality disorder from a clinical view and is listed in the American Psychological Association’s (APA) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders fifth edition (DSM-V) (Campbell, Foster, & Finkel, 2002). Narcissistic Personality Disorder is defined by the APA’s DSM-V (2013) as “a pervasive pattern of grandiosity (in fantasy or behavior), need for admiration, and lack of empathy, beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of contexts, as indicated by the DSM-V criteria.”

According to Crisp and Turner (2010), there are six main theories of self-concept maintenance that fall into three major categories: self-comparison, individual comparison, and group comparison. The first theory to be discussed is the control theory of self-regulation under the self-comparison category. According to this theory by Carver and Scheier (1981,1998, as cited in Crisp & Turner, 2010), an individual exists in a feedback loop of four steps involved in self-regulation. First people compare themselves to some standard (private beliefs or public expectations). If the person does not meet the standards, they will engage in some “operation” to correct behavior deficit. Then, they will test again and repeat the process until their test meets the standards and will then exit the loop.

The next theory to be discussed is the social comparison theory under the category of individual comparison. Social comparison theory, developed by Festinger (1954, as cited in Crisp & Turner, 2010), states that we learn how to define ourselves by comparing ourselves with others. Under this theory, by comparing ourselves to others, we have an objective standard to compare ourselves and receive validation. These comparisons vary, as individuals may compare themselves to people they see as better, worse, or the same as them (Crisp & Turner, 2010).

The third theory to be discussed is the social identity approach that sits under the group comparison category. This approach, developed by Hogg and Abrams (1988, as cited in Crisp & Turner, 2010), and Tajfel and Turner (1979, as cited in Crisp & Turner, 2010), states that our aspects of the self can be separated into our personal identity (personality and inborn traits) and our social identity (the social groups to which we belong) (Crisp & Turner, 2010). This theory states that our self-concept, or sense of self, is based on which combination of personal and social traits we are most consciously aware of and based on the situation we find ourselves in.

The three theories stated above have a few similarities. First, the control theory of self-regulation and the social comparison theory both utilize comparison to determine self-concept. However, a difference is how that comparison takes place, whether it be through individual standards or comparison to other people. Furthermore, the social comparison theory and the social identity approach are similar in that they consider other individuals, not just the person whose self-concept is in question. The difference between these theories is the way those other individuals are incorporated into the self-concept construction.

For this paper I have chosen Kathy from the Laureate Education media (2011). Kathy exhibits positive self-esteem. While she is critical of herself in the interview, she focuses on the positive aspects of her work, and focuses on what she can improve on instead of how she has failed (Laureate Ed., 2011). Furthermore, opposed to Jeannette (who is the narcissistic character), Kathy does not dwell on how she is the best or brightest of the company, but focuses on the feedback given to her by her boss, and how she can integrate herself into the group dynamic of the company (Laureate Ed., 2011). Each theory listed above can be applies to Kathy’s response to the professional evaluation by her boss.

First, we have the control theory of self-regulation in which an individual will compare themselves to either private or public standards and attempt to correct any failures that might occur (Carver and Scheier, 1981;1998, as cited in Crisp & Turner, 2010). In this scenario, Kathy compares herself to the public expectations of her boss and utilizes the operation of accepting the feedback from the evaluation to potentially do better at her job with the company. She further applies her private standards by demonstrating what score she was hoping to get and reconciling that with the score she got at the end of the evaluation. Kathy also utilizes the social comparison theory, in which we compare ourselves to others. Kathy compares her work ethic to that of others and explains that she would seek feedback and ideas to better integrate herself into the group dynamic of the company (Laureate Ed., 2011).

Finally, the third theory discussed was the social identity theory that states that our self-concept is split between our personal identity and our social identity (which is our membership within a group). Kathy demonstrates this by comparing her own success with that of the company (Laureate Ed., 2011). Failures of the company are failures to her as well, and successes are shared too. Since her membership as part of the company is important to her and her success at her job, this theory applies to her behavior.

My personal approach to psychological research and theory is a constructivist view, in which not any one single thing is responsible for the way things are, and as such I can see how all of the theories mentioned, and those that weren’t, can play important roles in the creation of an individual’s self-concept. Any one theory is not solely responsible for the construction of our self-concept, but all these theories together can explain the various aspects of the self-concept and how they are formed.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: Author.

Crisp, R. J., & Turner, R. N. (2010). Chapter 1: The Self. In Essential social psychology (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage.

Laureate Education, Inc. (Executive Producer). (2011). Week 2: The virtual office. Baltimore, MD: Author.