Compromising Conflict

Compromising Conflict

Legalism & Confucianism

China has encountered many obstacles throughout history in regards to it’s varying governmental and political systems. In the time of the Warring States both religious and philosophical ideals were developed as a result of a very conflicting time. Though conflict was the primary result, the intentional cause was to bring about harmony throughout all of China. Eventually, harmony will be established. However, this took some time and effort. Authoritarianism relates to the sense of freedom being held as a subordinate to a power of authority, more typically established under governmental and political systems (Xu 159). It’s important to understand the idea of an authoritarian society in order to compare and contrast the many forms of governmental and political systems or philosophical doctrines and practices that have emphasized the development of Chinese culture and society. The very same culture, or cultures, that have survived history until today, in these modern times, along with an authoritarian nature, or way of life, comes with the understanding of terms such as hierarchy, aristocracy, and veneration. These methods of teaching carry on in the many political and governmental forms that the Chinese culture, and its people, have embodied as both a form of morale and character. An embodiment resulting from what I like to call a “harmonious conflict”. Kind of an oxymoron when taken at face value. Yet, where else would the beauty of a civilized nation be formed than from a great conflict that molded into its concrete ways and acceptable forms. Conflict is, in a sense, one of natures finest, and most useful, tools used for harmonious precision. Without it, China may have never had the urge, motivation, or drive to bring about ideals, nesting in the minds of eager philosophers and leaders, such as those that promote change which directly resembles the likes of equality, peace, justice, benevolence, and even loyalty in families and nations.

The early development of the Chinese empire was being founded and later formed by two major ideals that were in direct conflict due to their significant differences. Though, in comparison, both thoughts have had their contributions that live on to this day in modern Chinese cultures. These two ideals were Legalism and Confucianism. According to Bulliet, Crossley, & Heindrick, et al. (61), “The events leading up to the formation of Legalism may have roughly began around 800 B.C.E when Zhou power began to crumble.” Stating that, “Local rulers operated independently and waged war on one another, while nomadic peoples attacked the Northeast Frontiers. The Zhou lineage relocated to the Eastern capital near Luoyang.” According to Bulliet, Crossley, & Heindrick et al. (61), “Numerous competing kingdoms meant numerous capital cities.”. Stating further that “By 600 B.C.E bureaucracies composed law codes, collected taxes, imposed monetary standards, and managed large-scale public works projects.” Concluding that “Those events led to the philosophy called Legalism.” Although I agree with the formation of harmony by natures course, I could not imagine the pain and suffering of the many mortal people it took to finally come to the resting conclusion of civilized nations. Not only did the people suffer, but lands rich in resources and animal life have felt the wrath of human existence and actions which we’ve laid upon her, and her species. Such epic dark and light forces of our being with an immense effect its had, and still has, upon ourselves and this planet. All in order to preserve our way of life and come to the final solution that seems as such a lifestyle, or practice, that is equipped with the understanding and power to have been existed without conflict, an obvious accord I believe many humanitarians my say. Maybe this is due to our innocent, and very mistakable, human errors, which cease to be unveiled and remain constant in all time… past, present, and future.

Conflict avails, and after such efforts to eliminate one another and have ultimate control over land, resources, and people, “The Qin Dynasty succeeded in conquering all the rest of the states and established the first unified Chinese Empire.” (Bulliet, Crossley, & Heindrick et al., 62). Thus, Legalism was formed. Founders of Legalism were Li Si, Han Fei, and Shang Yang. These philosophers and Chinese leaders emphasized the need for order above all other human concerns. Legalism in China is defined as:

A political philosophy that emphasized the unruliness of human nature and justified state coercion and control. The ruling class invoked it to validate the authoritarian nature of the regime and its profligate expenditure of subjects lives and labor. (Bulliet, Crossley, & Heindrick et al. G-8)

What this means is that, “authority is centered on one ruler or one ruling group, such as an authoritarian related system or practice in which individual freedom is held as completely subordinate to the power or authority of the state (Xu 159). A detailed analysis of Legalism describes this system as one that argues:

Maintaining the wealth and power of the state justified an authoritarian political control and that Legalist maintain that human nature is essentially wicked and that people behave properly only if compelled by strict laws and harsh punishments. They believed that every aspect of human society ought to be controlled and personal freedom be sacrificed for the good of the state. (Bulliet, Crossley, & Heindrick et al. 61)

Under the founders of Legalism one could observe from these readings that the sense of law, law enforcement, and the motivational methods of reward and punishment could certainly bring a specific order to society. Even in America today we could observe the ideals of ancient Chinese Legalism being a piece of our civilized puzzle called Capitalism. Though we do have strict laws, we don’t get rewarded for obeying them and our punishments are not harsh. It seems just as a light form of Legalism developed throughout out time and it is so tiny of the Legalist piece. This due to other philosophical ideals that arise in conflict of the intensities practiced by such a politically authoritative system which, by the order of Qin rulers, the burning of books that conflicted with their ideals:

So it seems that empire is empire, which causes the adherents of the radically different philosophies of Legalism and Confucianism to come to the same conclusion about control of ideas. In the enactment of measures for ideological control, however, the Han differed greatly from the Qin. The Han promoted Confucianism positively with institutional measures instead of savagely stamping out dissident schools. (Brownlee 116)

Confucianism was brought about, in difference, by opposing the severity of Legalist methods and strict political control. “Kongzi (known in the west as Confucius) was a thinker, a political figure, and an educator who’s teachings were preserved by his followers in the the Analects.” (Bulliet, Crossley, & Heindrick et al. 63). “ His doctrine of duty and public service had a great influence on subsequent Chinese thought and served as a code of conduct for government officials.” (Bulliet, Crossley, & Heindrick et al. 63). What this means to say code of conduct emphasizes the contrasting aspect Confucianism to Legalism. To have conduct, or to include conduct in practice, is to express ones integrity and personal behavior in all matters of which they stand for and released out into the environment they live. In comparison to Legalism and contrasting detail:

Confucius’s doctrine of duty and public service, initially aimed at fellow aristocrats, was to become a central influence in Chinese thought. Confucius’s teachings had roots in earlier Chinese belief, i.e. folk religion, rites of the Zhou royal family such as veneration of ancestors, elders, and the worship of the deity of Heaven. (Bulliet, Crossley, & Heindrick et al. 63)

Confucius’s teachings, in opposing Legalism, directly emphasized the importance of benevolence, avoidance of violence, Justice, rationalism, loyalty, and dignity (Bulliet, Crossley, & Heindrick et al. 63). Though just as Legalism practiced, and otherwise:

Confucianism draws a parallel between the family and state. Just as the family is a hierarchy, so to the state is a hierarchy. However, Confucius took a traditional term, Ren, which means feelings of family members, and expanded it into a universal ideal of benevolence toward all humanity (believing it to be the foundation of moral government). (Bulliet, Crossley, & Heindrick et al. 63)

As it would seem. Confucius, with his great teachings of ethics and aristocratic ways, did in fact oppose against the violence of a Legalist society but still understood and respected the positive aspects of a Legalist society that regarded family and states. “He helped people learn about nature, the world, and human behavior.” (Bulliet, Crossley, & Heindrick et al.). Through public interaction:

He believed inequality is necessary to maintain order in society, setting educational standards, possessed an optimistic view of human potential, and taught government and emperors how to rule successfully believing that government exist to serve the people. (Bulliet, Crossley, & Heindrick et al. 63)

Confucianism is not a religion but an ideal to be practiced. To my understanding it holds a certain wisdom amongst the many practices much like Buddhism and Taoism. Throughout my years of reading, research, conversation, and simply communicating with the ideas of Chinese cultures, I find mostly wise teachings than strict rules to follow. I observe Confucianism to be one such method of those teachings I have gather in my years. However our opinions and diverse understandings of Confucianism, many may ask what Confucianism is and wonder what exactly is to learn from it:

In analytical terms Confucianism is a specific ideology–a technical philosophy that can be stipulated with varying degrees of detail and accuracy. It is not so much an isolatable doctrine or a commitment to a certain belief structure as it is the continuing narrative of a community of people—the center of an on going way of thinking and living. (SUNG 4)

During a time of conflict and dividing states, China was becoming overrun with war, adopting many philosophies and practices from it’s many Dynasties. In the of Confucius’s, marked the end of Legalism and what was known as the Spring and Autumn period (Bulliet, Crossley, & Heindrick et al). Merging into the time of the Warring States brought many difficulties amongst the Chinese people and the conflict, political, views between states. Legalism revered he code of law and demanded the obedience of people through strict punishments and rewards (Bulliet, Crossley, & Heindrick et al). Confucianism was adopted by the beliefs and practices of Kongzi. Though Confucius had opposing views with the more violent approaches of Legalist philosophers, he held with with in his own teachings the importance of an hierarchy that paralleled both family and state. Legalism and Confucianism are alike in that they both venerate their ancestors and worship a deity in Heaven (Bulliet, Crossley, & Heindrick et al) Confucius said “Government exist to serve the people, and the administrator or rule gains respect and authority by displaying fairness and integrity.” This quote alone exemplifies, to me, the greatest difference between a Legalist concept of its society and philosophical view of authority compared to an aristocrat concept developed in the minds of the philosophically just and fair. Today, I imagine, modern China is full of a diverse cultural establishment that have adopted themselves by the origins of ancient Chinese Dynasties. One great example is Daoism, what Confucianism is a predecessor to, and many others have come into fruition, one such as Buddhism. As I stated earlier, conflict is force in itself to be reckoned with. Though a destructive force it may initially be, one can’t argue the aftermath being none other than a harmony of precision.

Works Cited

Bulliet, R.W., Crossley, P.K., & Heindrick, D.R. et al. The Earth and its Peoples: A Global History. Brief edition Sixth Edition Volume I: To 1550.

SUNG, Winnie. “Zhong 忠 in the Analects with Insights into Loyalty.” Confucianisms for a Changing World Cultural Order, edited by ROGER T. AMES and PETER D. HERSHOCK, University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu, 2018, pp. 175–196. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv3zp05k.14.

GOODMAN, HOWARD L. “The Birth of Early-Medieval China Studies in a Global and Interconnective Context.” Asia Major, vol. 23, no. 1, 2010, pp. 18–28. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41649985.

STRUVE, LYNN A. “The Early Ch'ing Legacy of Huang Tsung-Hsi: A Reexamination.” Asia Major, vol. 1, no. 1, 1988, pp. 83–122. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41645420.

Brownlee, John S. “Ideological Control in Ancient Japan.” Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques, vol. 14, no. 1, 1987, pp. 113–133. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41298876.

Xu, Ben. “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positioning: The 1990s' New Cultural Conservatism in China.” Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, vol. 11, no. 1, 1999, pp. 157–192. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41490794