A History of Indigenous peoples in Canada

An Introduction to Indigenous History Month

In Canada, June marks National Indigenous History Month: an opportunity to educate ourselves on the cultures, traditions, and experiences of the Indigenous people whose footsteps paved the way for Canadians today. It's an opportunity for reflection: a chance to acknowledge the impacts of colonization on Indigenous people, and reflect on ways we can contribute to reconciliation.

The term Indigenous refers to the First Nations, Métis, and Inuit people that reside across Canada: the original inhabitants of the land. According to Statistics Canada, Indigenous people make up five percent of the population, with an approximate total of almost two million people. Statistics Canada states that more than half of the First Nations population of Canada lives in western provinces, with less than two percent living in the territories. In contrast, the largest Inuit population resides in Nunavut, with nearly forty four percent of Canada's total Inuit population. Though their cultures and social systems have shaped Canada, these groups remain highly threatened by colonial forces, racism, and segregation.

National Indigenous Peoples Day occurs on the summer solstice, the longest day of the year. This year marks its thirtieth anniversary. A list of Indigenous-led events can be found here.

A History of Indigenous Peoples in Canada

According to archaeological evidence, North and South America were the the last continents with human habitation. The first inhabitants of North America arrived in Canada at least 14,000 years ago, believed to have migrated from northeastern Asia by crossing a land bridge known as Beringia. They settled first in northern areas such as Yukon and Alaska, later expanding their civilizations across the country. These Indigenous Canadians created complex political, social, and cultural systems that would have an impact on the country for thousands of years.

It was in the seventeenth century that the Indigenous population was first threatened by European colonialism. The first assimilation efforts began with the arrival of French missionaries in New France: an area that later became Quebec and parts of Newfoundland. European interactions were initially peaceful, but soon became violent and inhumane: with smallpox epidemics that killed more than 20,000 Indigenous people, the implementation of residential schools, forced sterilizations and displacement, human experiments, Inuit dog slaughter, and medical segregation.

In 2008, the Government of Canada formed the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, a committee whose purpose was to document the history and impact of Canadian residential schools. It provided residential school survivors an opportunity to speak about their experiences, as well as outlining ways to improve relations between Indigenous nations and governments of Canada. The commission dissolved in 2015 with the publication of a report concluding the school systems had equated to cultural genocide.

Before the publication of the Indian Act, a number of Indigenous groups made five numbered treaties with the federal government. For descriptions of treaties one through eleven, see here. In 1876, the Indian Act was published: a federal document that administers Indian status, First Nations governments, and the management of reserves. It consists of several colonial laws that aim to assimilate Indigenous people into Euro-Canadian culture. Upon its introduction, the Indian Act attempted to generalize a vast population of people and gave the federal government control over Indigenous identity, governance, education, and cultural practices. This government control greatly restricted the freedoms of Indigenous people, and allowed their rights to be determined based on "good character".

In 1884, the act banned the potlach: an Indigenous ceremony that involves feasting, singing, spirit dances, and theatrics. In 1895, it went on to prohibit any festival or ceremony that involved a powwow. In 1914, an amendment was made to the act that outlawed dancing outside of an Indigenous reserve; this was further amended in 1925 to prohibit dancing entirely. Subsequent amendments between 1894 and 1920 would require Indigenous children to attend residential schooling: many of which were located far from reservations.

In addition, the act defined which people were considered Indian under the law. It defined an Indian as "any male person of Indian blood reputed to belong to a particular band." This definition applies to 'any child of such a person", as well as "any woman who is lawfully married to such a person". A person would lose Indian status if they graduated from university, married a non-status person, or become a Christian minister, doctor, or lawyer.

Following the Second World War, in June 1951, a new and revised Indian Act was given royal assent. This updated version removed previous bans on ceremonies and gave Indigenous women the right to vote in band elections. However, these revisions did not overturn the concept of Indian status, but replaced it with a concept of "status through registration." This idea of status was discriminatory and sexist: men could keep their status upon marrying a non-status woman, and status women lost their rights if they married non-status men.

The Canadian Indian Residential School System

After the passing of the Indian Act, the Government of Canada's Department of Indian Affairs implemented the Canadian Indian Residential School System: a network of boarding schools for Indigenous children, created as a way of "civilizing and assimilating". By 1894, attendance was mandatory; by the 1930's, thirty percent of Indigenous children attended a residential school. The conditions of school systems, and the treatment of the children attending them, was abysmal. Students were faced with a multitude of abuse: sexual and physical assault, malnutrition, corporal punishment, overcrowding, forced labour, human experiments, and poor sanitation. Lack of medical care led to high rates of influenza and tuberculosis, with death rates in one school as high as 69% percent.

In addition to their inhumane treatment in school, children were often denied access to their parents and families. The federal government's Indian Commissioner objected to children returning home during holidays, claiming this would interrupt their assimilation. He argued also for the relocation of schools further from Indigenous reservations, increasing the journey and making visiting more difficult.

Mortality rates in residential schools were high, although the true number of deaths is unknown due to inconsistent reporting and the destruction of medical records. Research suggests that, of the 150,000 students that attended a residential school over the course of their existence, as many as 6,000 died as a result of disease or abuse. The chairman of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission estimated that the number of deaths could be as high as 25,000. The 1906 annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs stated that ""the Indian population of Canada has a mortality rate of more than double that of the whole population, and in some provinces more than three times."" Students who died while attending a school were buried in unregistered, unmarked gravesites.

In 1969, a major protest took place at a First Nations community in Alberta. This led to the closing of the Blue Quills residential school by the government, who later converted the school into a residence. In 1970, more than 1000 members of Saddle Lake Cree Nation took place in a seventeen day sit-in, demanding the right to run the school themselves. Their efforts resulted in Blue Quills becoming the country's first Indigenous-run school. Today, it runs as University nuhelot’įne thaiyots’į nistameyimâkanak Blue Quills.

The last federally-funded residential school closed in 1997. Since 1974, more than 300 bodies have been unearthed in mass burial sites across the country, and unmarked graves are still being discovered.

Land Acknowledgements: Why are they necessary?

To acknowledge our land is to reflect on our relationship with the land and the impacts of colonization that affect our country to this day. Land acknowledgement recognizes that Canada is built on Indigenous land, and understands that Indigenous groups have rights to it. In 2007, the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People was adopted, with one hundred forty three nations voting in favour and four voting against. This declaration establishes a framework of minimum standards for the survival, dignity, and well-being of Indigenous peoples around the world.

In 2015, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission tabled a report with ninety four calls to action, giving way to the introduction of land acknowledgments in Canada. Under the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People, the Government of Canada was called to acknowledge the abhorrent treatment of Indigenous people throughout the country's history, and to recognize their rights and sacrifices. Since 2019, land acknowledgements have been commonplace in organizations and educational institutions across the country.

In addition to acknowledging the land, there are several ways to honour Indigenous people and their cultures. We can begin by understanding the history of our countries, and the connection of this land to Indigenous communities. We can support Indigenous-owned businesses, and openly advocate for the rights of Indigenous peoples by supporting activists, demanding policy changes, educating ourselves and others, and amplifying the voices of Indigenous people.

Sources and Further Reading

https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1683124800202/1683124846095

https://www.canada.ca/en/services/culture/canadian-identity-society/indigenous-peoples-cultures.html

https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/aboriginal-people

https://canadawander.com/friendly-overview-indigenous-peoples-canada/

https://www.statcan.gc.ca/en/subjects-start/indigenous_peoples

https://industry.travelalberta.com/posts/articles/five-ways-to-honour-indigenous-peoples-in-everyday-interactions

https://madeinca.ca/indigenous-peoples-statistics-canada/

https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/indian-act

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada#History

https://ancientwarhistory.com/the-indigenous-peoples-of-canada-before-european-colonization-origins-cultures-and-early-encounters/

https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/prehistory

https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/indian-act

https://social.desa.un.org/issues/indigenous-peoples/united-nations-declaration-on-the-rights-of-indigenous-peoples

https://fatsil.org/indigenous/how-can-we-honor-indigenous-peoples/