Teaching and usage of “articles” in English grammar

Before embarking on a journey to “discover meaning of articles” in English grammar, it is very important to understand the meaning of grammar and its relationship with the language itself. Thornbury (1999) defines grammar as “a description of the rules for forming sentences, including an account of the meanings that these forms convey”. He says that grammar enables us to use language in terms of how, where and when things happen, and it also facilitates the way we interact with each other. However, not only grammar but contextual information also plays an important role in the interpretation and understanding of various forms of communication. He discusses strong arguments both in the favour of and against teaching grammar.

In the English as a second language (ESL) context, basic grammar teaching ought to be considered imperative considering the linguistic and cultural diversity of the ESL learners. This will certainly facilitate learning of English among them. The efficiency (the E-factor) and the appropriateness (the A-factor) should be considered. Pedagogic rules of grammar make sense to learners and provide them with the means and confidence to generate language with a good chance of success. A distinction between “rules of form” (e.g., to form the past simple of regular verbs, add –ed to the infinitive) and “rules of use” (e.g., the simple past tense is used to indicate past actions or states) should be made while teaching grammar (Thornbury, 1999). Articles are a significant element of English grammar, and they effectively help in appropriate linguistic expression (Jones, 1992; Obrecht, 1999). Their proper knowledge and how to teach them is important in the overall understanding of the English language (Azar, 2002).

What are articles?

Articles belong to a group of words called “Determiners”. These words restrict or specify a noun in some way. Determiners are words like “the, an, my, some”. They all come at the beginning of noun phrases. Usually only one determiner can be used for the same noun phrase. “The” and “a/an” are called “articles” and they are “definite” and “indefinite” respectively. “Definite” means sure, certain and is particular whereas “indefinite” generally means not sure or uncertain. While talking about one thing in particular, we use definite article “the” (e.g., I saw the moon last night) and while talking about one thing in general, we use “a” or “an” (e.g., I saw a star last night). Sometimes the “definite” or “indefinite” article can be used for the same word depending on the context. For example, we want to buy an umbrella (any umbrella) and where is the umbrella which I left in my office? (a particular umbrella). When no article is used, it is sometimes referred to as a “zero” article (OWL Website).

Types of articles

A. Definite Article

Definite article “the” is used to restrict the meaning of a noun to make it refer to something that is known by both the speaker or writer and the listener or reader. For example, He has gone to the shop (here the listener knows which shop I mean). It can also be used to refer to something that has already been mentioned: There is a word for that. Now, what is the word? It can be used to refer forwards to something that is coming: The key to the front door is under the mat. It can be used to refer to a group: The car has changed our way of living.

The following examples will further explain the usage of definite article. The capital of Canada is Ottawa. I have found the book that I lost. Have you washed the car? There are six eggs in the refrigerator. Please switch off the television when you finish watching news.

B. Indefinite Article

There are two indefinite articles in English, 'a' and 'an'. They are used before a singular noun that has a plural form. 'A' is used before a consonant sound and 'an' is used before a vowel sound. The sound is more important than the spelling; we say, “an umbrella”, “a union” and “an honest person” because the sounds of the first letter are different. The following examples will further explain the usage of indefinite article. I was born in a village in India. Amanda only eats an orange for lunch. He ordered a drink at a bar. Have you got a pencil? We want to buy an umbrella. Chandra owns a house in his village.

C. Zero Article

This is not a type of an article. Sometimes a noun is used without “the, and ‘a’ or an”, for example, Time is money. Such a situation is sometimes referred to as a zero article.

How to teach articles?

A. Methods of Teaching Grammar: An understanding of methods used to teach grammar is essential before venturing in how to teach articles. There are several methods for teaching grammar, ranging from absolutely no grammar teaching at one end to very heavy teaching of grammar at the other. The “Grammar-Translation” method follows a grammar syllabus where lessons begin with a statement of the rule, followed by exercises involving translation into and out of the mother tongue. It focuses exclusively on the written language. The “Direct Method” is supposedly more “natural” and oral skills are its priority. Learners are supposed to pick up grammar in the same way as children pick up the grammar of their mother tongue, simply by being immersed in the language. “Audiolingual” method derives its theoretical basis from behaviorist psychology, which considers language as simply a form of behavior to be learned through the formation of correct behavior. Such a syllabus consists of sentence patterns of grammatical origin and forms the basis of pattern-practice drill (Thornbury, 1999).

Chomsky’s idea of innate human capacity prompted a reassessment of the drill-and-repeat type teaching and led to the “natural approach” that discarded both a grammar syllabus and rule-giving. Instead, learners are given large inputs of comprehensible input. In due course of time this input converts into output. Research in sociolinguistics led to the development of “Communicative Language Teaching” (CLT). This method believes that communicative competence consists of more than simply the knowledge of the rules of grammar (Thornbury, 1999).

B. Processes of Teaching Grammar: The teaching methods discussed above can be classified into two main approaches to teach grammar, deductive or rule-driven learning versus inductive or discovery learning. A deductive approach starts with the presentation of a rule and is followed by examples, whereas inductive approach starts with some examples from which a rule is inferred (Thornbury, 1999).

C. Advantages and Disadvantages of Deductive and Inductive Teaching Processes: The advantage of the deductive process is that it gets straight to the point, saves time, and many rules can simply be explained than elicited from examples. It respects intelligence and maturity of learners, especially ESL adult learners, and acknowledges the role of cognitive processes of language acquisition. The disadvantages of this process lie in starting a lesson with a grammar point that may discourage a learner with limited metalanguage capability, thus their inability to understand the concept. The teacher’s explanation is often at the expense of learner involvement and interaction.

Grammar rules learned through the inductive process are more meaningful, memorable, and serviceable because of greater cognitive depth involved in the learning process. Learners are more actively involved, thus more motivated in the learning process rather than just passive recipients. This approach enhances learners’ pattern-recognition and problem-solving abilities. It also provides greater self-reliance and is therefore conducive to learner autonomy. The disadvantage of the inductive approach is that it is a very time and energy consuming process and might mislead learners into believing that rules are the objective of language rather than a means. Sometimes learners may hypothesize an incorrect rule. It can place a heavy demand on teachers in planning a lesson.

D. Teaching Articles Deductively (by rules)

Selecting an article to use with a noun is complex because the range of choices depends on whether the noun is singular or plural or count or non-count. Both definite and indefinite articles are used for singular count nouns, whereas only definite article “the” is used for plural count noun and non-count nouns (OWL Website).

1. Rules for use of Indefinite Article: “A” and “an” indicate that the noun modified is indefinite and is used with singular nouns when the noun is general. The corresponding indefinite quantity word “some” is used for plural general nouns (OWL website). The rule is: a + singular noun beginning with a consonant, for example “a boy”; an + singular noun beginning with a vowel, for example “an elephant”; a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound, for example “a user” (sounds like yoo-zer, that is begins with a consonant “y” sound, so “a” is used) (OWL Website).

If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between “a” and “an” depends on the initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article: A broken egg; An unusual problem; A European country (sounds like “yer-o-pi-an”, beginning with the consonant “y” sound). Indefinite articles are also used to indicate membership in a profession, nation, or religion, for example, I am a teacher; Brian is an Irishman; Mitsumi is a practicing Buddhist (OWL Website).

2. Rules for Use of Definite Article: The definite article “the” is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is particular or specific. “The” signals that the noun refers to a particular member of a group (OWL website). The following examples illustrate the usage of Indefinite and Definite articles.

Indefinite (a or an) Definite (the)

Singular a dog (any dog) the dog (that specific dog)

an apple (any apple) the apple (that specific apple)

Plural some dogs (any dogs) the dogs (those specific dogs)

some apples (any apples) the apples (those specific apples)

“The” is not used with non-countable nouns referring to something in the general sense, for example, (no article) Coffee is a popular drink; (no article) Japanese was his native language; (no article) Intelligence is difficult to quantify.

“The” is used with no countable nouns that are made more specific by a limiting modifying phrase or clause, for example, The coffee in my cup is too hot to drink; The Japanese he speaks is often heard in the countryside; The intelligence of animals is variable but undeniable.

“The” is also used when a noun refers to something unique, for example, the White House; the theory of relativity; the 1999 federal budget.

3. Geographical uses of “the”: The article “the” is not used before names of countries (except “the Netherlands” and “the USA”), cities, towns, provinces or states, streets, lakes and bays (except with a group of lakes like the Great Lakes), mountains (except for ranges of mountains like the Rockies, the Andes or the Matterhorn), continents and islands (except for island chains like the Aleutians, the Canary Islands).

The article “the” is used before names of rivers, oceans and seas, points on the globe (the Equator, the North Pole), geographical areas (the Middle East, the West), deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas (OWL Website).

4. Countable vs. Noncountable: “A” and “an” are used if the noun can be counted, for example, I drank a glass of milk (glasses of milk can be counted); I saw an orange tree (orange trees can be counted). “The” must be used if the noun cannot be counted, for example, I dove into the water (water is noncountable); I saw the milk spill; I admired the foliage (LEO Website; OWL Website).

5. First vs. Subsequent Mention: “A” or “an” is used to introduce a noun when it is mentioned for the first time in a piece of writing. “The” is used afterward each time the same noun is mentioned, for example, “There is a robin in the tree outside my window. When my cat jumps up on the desk, the robin flies away.”

6. General vs. Specific: “A”, “an”, and “the” can all be used to indicate how a noun refers to the whole class to which individual countable nouns belong. This use of articles is called generic (Latin for “class”), for example, A tiger is a dangerous animal (any individual tiger). The tiger is a dangerous animal (all tigers: tiger as a generic category).

The difference between the indefinite “a” and “an” and the generic “a” and “an” is that the former means any one member of a class while the latter means all the members of the class. The omission of articles also expresses a generic (or general) meaning, for example, Tigers are dangerous animals (all tigers), Anger is a destructive emotion (any kind of anger).

7. Omission of articles: Some common types of nouns that do not take an article are names of languages and nationalities, names of sports and names of academic subjects (Azar, 2002; OWL Website).

E. Teaching articles inductively (by examples)

Teaching grammar inductively is a very challenging and time-consuming exercise and might not even serve the desired purpose. Teaching articles by examples can be achieved up to a certain extent, for example, the use of indefinite articles “a” and “an”. Its usage can be described by a series of examples. The use of definite article “the” is more problematic and will be a very difficult exercise to explain. The occurrence of exceptions to every rule complicates teaching articles inductively.

Articles are “determiners”, and they restrict or specify nouns. “The” is a definite article and “a and an” are indefinite. Their usage is very significant in English grammar because they provide English language an innate ability for precise description of any kind. Deductive methods are primarily useful in teaching articles because of complexity of rules of their usage. Inductive method of teaching articles in the English grammar is in my opinion not only time consuming but also ineffective.

References

Azar, B. S. 2002. Understanding and using English grammar (3rd Edition). Longman, P. 437 + Appendices.

Dave’s ESL café (http://www.eslcafe.com)

Jones, Leo. 1992. Communicative Grammar Practice. Activities for Intermediate Students of English. Cambridge University Press. 105 p.

LEO (Literacy Education Online). Articles. (http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/grammar/countnon.html)

Obrecht, Fred. 1999. Minimum Essentials of English. Barron’s Educational Series, Inc. NY, 72 p.

OWL Website: The use and non-use of articles (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/eslart.html)

Thornbury, S. 2004. How to teach grammar. Longman. P. 182.