A História
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"Hi. My name is Wellington and I'm a passion for general history. Here, I publish articles on different periods and themes in history, from prehistory to the present day.
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Medieval Egypt
After the Islamic conquest in 639, Lower Egypt came under the governance of governors who acted on behalf of the Rashidun Caliphs and later the Umayyad Caliphs in Damascus. However, in 747, the Umayyads were ousted from power. During the Islamic rule, Askar was designated as the capital and served as the administrative center. The conquest resulted in the formation of two separate provinces, Upper and Lower Egypt, which were governed by the military and adhered to the directives issued by the governor of Egypt and the leaders of their respective communities. Egypt experienced a series of dynastic rule following the establishment of Islamic control in 639, lasting until the early 16th century. The Umayyad period, spanning from 658 to 750, marked an important phase in Egypt's history. Subsequently, the Abbasid period emerged, characterized by a greater emphasis on taxation and the consolidation of power. In 868, the Tulunids, led by Ahmad ibn Tulun, expanded Egypt's territorial influence into the Levant. Ahmad ibn Tulun's reign persisted until his demise in 884, after which his successor faced significant challenges, leading to a defection of many citizens back to the Abbasids. Consequently, in 904, the Abbasids regained control from the Tulunids.
By A História6 months ago in History
Pre-Islamic Arabia
The Arab world prior to the emergence of Islam was a sprawling territory inhabited by numerous nomadic and settled tribes, each with its own distinct culture. These tribes existed independently of one another, lacking any form of cohesion or unity. Present-day Muslims commonly refer to this period as the "jilia" or pre-Islamic era of Arabia. It is important to note that the concept of Arabia or the Arab world during this time is not based on geographical boundaries, but rather a modern construct. The amalgamation of various tribes in pre-Islamic Arabia, despite possessing minimal cultural similarities, can be likened to the situation with the Celts. The term "jilia" was used pejoratively by Muslims to describe the era of ignorance, during which the Arabs were believed to engage in destructive and sinful behaviors such as gambling, alcohol consumption, usury, and fornication, in addition to practicing polytheism. Similarly, the Dark Ages and the Middle Ages were terms coined during the Renaissance to denigrate the medieval period in Europe. However, our understanding of the pre-Islamic era primarily relies on legends and poems, as written sources from that time are scarce. Islamic sources, such as the Quran and the Radit, also provide information about this period, although they are often criticized for their biased portrayal of pre-Islamic Arabia. Despite these limitations, the available information allows us to gain insights into the lives of the pre-Islamic tribes in Arabia. These tribes were organized along tribal lines, with each tribe being named after its esteemed leader, similar to the dynasties of medieval Europe. Within these tribes, smaller family groups known as clans existed, often engaging in fierce competition for control. However, in the face of external threats, the clans would set aside their disputes and unite against the common enemy, mirroring the behavior of the Celts when confronted with the invasions of the Roman Empire. These clans were led by individuals known as "shakes," who were selected based on their age, generosity, and courage. These leaders held positions of authority within a council responsible for making important decisions and judgments. In instances where conflicts arose between tribes, the clan councils convened to seek resolutions. It is important to note that during the Pre-Islamic period, there were no established laws, resulting in arbitrary judgments and the potential for bribery. In tribal councils, individuals with influential connections often escaped punishment, highlighting the prevalence of biased judgments. Additionally, it was common for aggrieved parties to take matters into their own hands rather than seeking justice through the tribal court system. This was likely due to the understanding that they would likely lose their case, particularly if the dispute involved members from different tribes. In such instances, the accused, if belonging to a more powerful tribe, would often evade punishment. Conversely, the most powerful tribes held authority over various territories, akin to medieval European kingdoms. These territories encompassed cities, towns, and even smaller settlements consisting of local tents, with access to essential resources such as water, pastures, and cultivable land. Despite the perception of desert lands in Arabia as insignificant by ancient empires, the tribes inhabiting the region were not entirely excluded from major political engagements. The Byzantine and Sasanian Empires, representing the Eastern Romans and the pre-Islamic Persians respectively, utilized Arab tribes as vassals, allies, and clients to safeguard their southern borders. Arab forces were integrated into the armies of both empires and occasionally clashed with each other on the battlefield. However, historical records indicate instances where Arabs refused to engage in warfare against fellow Arabs, demonstrating a sense of communal solidarity that would later become significant. The foundation of Islam was established on the principles of equality and justice. However, in certain circumstances, tribes within Arabia would form alliances with foreign powers if they believed it would lead to victory in conflicts with other tribes. Occasionally, empires would even launch military campaigns in Arabia to seek revenge or conquer territory. Nevertheless, due to the harsh arid conditions and the fierce resistance of the Arab tribes, these invaders were typically expelled within a few years.
By A História6 months ago in History
The Thracians
Thrace, a region situated in Southeast Europe, holds significant geographical and historical importance. It is demarcated by the Balkan Mountains in the north, the Aegean Sea in the south, and the Black Sea in the east. Presently, Thrace encompasses southeastern Bulgaria (known as Northern Thrace), northeastern Greece (referred to as Western Thrace), and the European portion of Turkey (known as East Thrace). This region roughly corresponds to the ancient Roman Province of Thrace. Furthermore, the lands once inhabited by the ancient Thracians extended northwards to encompass modern-day Northern Bulgaria and Romania, and westwards into Macedonia. The term "Thrace" originates from the ancient Greek word "Thrake" and initially denoted the Thracians, an ancient population residing in Southeast Europe. The term "Europe," derived from the ancient Greek word "Εὐρώπη," also initially referred to this particular region before its meaning expanded to encompass its contemporary definition. The designation of the region may have been influenced by the principal river in the area, Hebros, which could potentially derive from the Indo-European term "arg," signifying a "white river" (in contrast to the Vardar River, meaning a "black river"). Alternatively, according to an alternative hypothesis, Hebros may have originated from the Thracian word for "goat."
By A História6 months ago in History
The History of Kievan Rus
Kievan Rus, often referred to simply as Rus, was a medieval East Slavic state that existed from the late 9th century to the 13th century. This historic region, centered around the city of Kiev, played a crucial role in shaping the early history of Eastern Europe. The history of Kievan Rus is a rich tapestry of political, cultural, and social developments that left a lasting impact on the region and laid the foundation for modern-day Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus. This text will take you on a journey through the fascinating history of Kievan Rus, exploring its origins, expansion, cultural achievements, and ultimate decline. The origins of Kievan Rus can be traced back to the late 9th century when a group of East Slavic tribes began to coalesce around the city of Kiev. The primary source of information about this period is the "Primary Chronicle," also known as the "Tale of Bygone Years" or "The Chronicle of Nestor." Compiled in the early 12th century, this chronicle provides valuable insights into the early history of the region. The legendary figure credited with the establishment of Kievan Rus is Prince Rurik, who, according to the Primary Chronicle, was invited to rule over the Slavic tribes in the area. Rurik's arrival marked the beginning of a dynasty known as the Rurikid dynasty, which would rule over Kievan Rus for centuries. The 10th and 11th centuries are often referred to as the "Golden Age" of Kievan Rus. During this period, the state expanded its territory, established a stable governance system, and embraced Christianity. Prince Vladimir the Great (ruled 980-1015): Vladimir is perhaps the most renowned ruler of Kievan Rus. He converted to Christianity in 988, adopting Eastern Orthodox Christianity as the state religion. This conversion marked a profound cultural and religious transformation for the region, as it brought the Byzantine Christian tradition to Kievan Rus. Yaroslav the Wise (ruled 1019-1054): Yaroslav, the son of Vladimir, is remembered for his legal reforms and the compilation of the "Russkaya Pravda" (Rus' Justice), a legal code that helped standardize laws and regulations within the state. His reign also saw an increase in cultural activity, with the construction of impressive churches and the establishment of the first East Slavic library in Kiev. Iaropolk II (ruled 1015-1019): Iaropolk II, while ruling briefly, faced challenges from his brothers and neighboring states, which ultimately weakened the unity of Kievan Rus. The 12th century marked a period of decline and fragmentation for Kievan Rus. Several factors contributed to this decline, including internal strife, external invasions, and the emergence of regional power centers. The 12th century marked a period of decline and fragmentation for Kievan Rus. Several factors contributed to this decline, including internal strife, external invasions, and the emergence of regional power centers. The Cumans (Polovtsians) Invasions: The Cumans, a nomadic Turkic people, launched several incursions into Kievan Rus territory, destabilizing the region and causing widespread destruction.
By A História7 months ago in History
The Franks
The Franks, a Germanic ethnic group, emerged from the lower reaches of the Rhine River. During the period of mass migration, they migrated into Gaul, where they successfully established a kingdom of considerable magnitude and influence in Europe subsequent to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. The zenith of their impact was witnessed under the reign of Charlemagne (742-814), whose rule played a pivotal role in shaping the course of Europe during the Middle Ages and beyond.The Roman conquest of Gaul, which was successfully carried out by Julius Caesar during the 1st century BCE, established the Rhine River as the definitive boundary of the Roman world. Consequently, the river assumed the role of a political demarcation line between 'civilization' (namely, Rome) and the 'barbaric' Germans who resided beyond its banks. In the Roman perception, these Germans were commonly depicted as being tall, fair-haired, unclean, and predisposed to acts of violence. Over the course of several centuries, the Roman legions stationed along the Rhine frontier effectively deterred the incursions of the Germanic tribes, until the gradual erosion of Roman authority, exemplified by events such as the Crisis of the Third Century, facilitated the infiltration of certain Germanic peoples into Roman territory. There exist various accounts regarding the origins of the Franks. The historian Gregory of Tours, writing in the 6th century, posits that the Franks originated in Pannonia and subsequently migrated to the Rhineland before settling in Thuringia and Belgium. In contrast, the Chronicle of Fredegar and the Liber Historiae Francorum, both of which are of uncertain authorship, offer more legendary accounts that trace Frankish origins back to the Trojan War. According to these myths, King Priam led 12,000 Trojan refugees to Pannonia, where they established the city of Sicambria. Some remained there, while others followed a leader named Francio to the Rhine, where they became known as the 'Franks'. The connection to Troy was likely an attempt by the Franks to establish a lineage on par with that of the Romans, who also claimed descent from the Trojans. While this origin story is undoubtedly mythical, some contemporary scholars, such as Ian Wood, contend that there is little evidence to support the notion that the Franks undertook any significant migration and instead propose that they originated in the Rhineland. During the reign of King Clovis I (r. 481-511), the Franks underwent a well-known conversion to Christianity. Prior to this, however, it is believed that they adhered to a form of ancient Germanic paganism. This particular belief system was characterized by a pantheon of multiple deities, each of which was associated with specific local cult centers. Additionally, forests were considered to be sacred spaces within this mythology. Prior to their unification, each Frankish tribe adhered to its own distinct set of laws, which were orally transmitted and recited by a designated law speaker. However, during the reign of Clovis between 507 and 511, a comprehensive civil law code was formulated to govern the newly established Frankish kingdom. This legal code, known as Salic Law, derived its name from the influential Salian tribe. Primarily composed in Latin, Salic Law primarily addressed matters pertaining to inheritance and criminal justice, thereby serving as a foundational framework for subsequent legal systems across Europe. Subsequently, another Frankish law code, known as the Ripuarian Law, was compiled circa 630, coinciding with the ascendance of the Ripuarians within the Kingdom of Austrasia. The Franks were initially recognized by a contemporary Roman source in 289 CE, although it is likely that the Franks had been involved in conflicts with the Romans for several decades prior. A Roman marching song from the 260s mentions the unfortunate deaths of many Franks, while archaeological evidence suggests that the Franks began their attacks on Roman Gaul as early as the 250s. By the end of the 3rd century, the Franks had launched multiple invasions into Roman territory, utilizing both land and sea strategies. Historical records indicate that Frankish pirates ventured into the Mediterranean, conducting raids as far as North Africa. In 486, Clovis initiated his conquest of Gaul by defeating Syagrius, the final major Roman official in Gaul, and capturing the city of Soissons. Utilizing this power base, he launched campaigns against the Alemanni, the Burgundians, and the Visigoths, thereby expanding Frankish influence throughout Gaul and Aquitaine. Clovis' conversion to Nicene Christianity (Catholicism) in approximately 496 marked the beginning of the gradual Christianization of the Franks. This conversion was significant in establishing Frankish Gaul as a stronghold for Catholicism, as opposed to Arianism, a competing Christian sect that was favored by other barbarian kingdoms. In the latter part of his reign, Clovis ruthlessly annexed the other Frankish kingdoms and executed their leaders, thereby unifying the Franks as a single people for the first time. At the time of his death in 511, Clovis reigned as "King of All the Franks" and held dominion over all of Gaul, with the exception of Burgundy, Provence, and Septimania. Following the passing of Clovis, the Merovingian kingdom underwent a division among his four sons, which may have set a precedent for future successions. Initially, the sons worked collaboratively to build upon their father's conquests, successfully expanding their territory by conquering Burgundy, Provence, and Thuringia in the 530s. Additionally, the sons of Clovis campaigned against the Visigoths in northern Spain, sent armies into Italy, expanded Frankish influence into Bavaria, and secured an annual tribute of 500 cows from the Saxons. With the passing of the Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great in 526, the Merovingian kingdom emerged as the largest and most powerful barbarian successor state to have replaced Rome in western Europe. Despite their achievements, the Merovingian rulers frequently engaged in conflicts and consistently sought ways to undermine and conspire against one another. In the year 558, Chlothar I, the youngest son of Clovis and reigning from 511 to 561, emerged as the triumphant figure. This victory came after enduring decades of rivalry with his siblings, which involved the heinous acts of murdering his nephews and executing his own son. By outliving his brothers and inheriting their territories, Chlothar I successfully reunited the Frankish kingdom under his sole authority. Regrettably, his reign was short-lived, lasting less than three years before his demise in 561. Consequently, the kingdom was once again divided among his four sons, leading to the formation of three distinct Merovingian realms: Neustria, Austrasia, and Burgundy. The demise of Chlothar I instigated a fresh wave of machinations, internal conflicts, and targeted killings, driven by the intense rivalry between Queen Brunhilda of Austrasia (l. c. 543-613) and Queen Fredegund of Neustria (d. 597). This protracted confrontation endured for several decades and escalated into proxy wars waged by the offspring and descendants of these queens, until its culmination in 613 when Queen Brunhilda was ultimately vanquished and executed by King Chlothar II (r. 584-629), who happened to be the son of Fredegund. Chlothar II successfully reunited Francia and assumed the prestigious title of "King of All the Franks," yet his triumph came at a considerable cost. In order to consolidate his position, he was compelled to make substantial concessions to the nobility. The 614 Edict of Paris formalized the customary privileges of the aristocracy and decentralized authority, placing it in the hands of regional elites. Dagobert I, the son of Chlothar II, reigned as the final Merovingian monarch to exercise substantial royal power during his tenure from 623 to 639. Despite the Merovingian dynasty's continued reign for over a century following Dagobert's demise, their authority gradually waned as the mayors of the palace emerged as the de facto powers behind the throne. The decline of Merovingian influence prompted the chronicler Einhard to label subsequent Merovingian rulers as "rois fainéants" or "idle kings". In the year 687, the Kingdom of Austrasia achieved a significant victory over Neustria and Burgundy at the Battle of Tetry, thereby establishing itself as the predominant kingdom in Francia. This triumph resulted in an increase in power for the esteemed aristocratic family, commonly referred to as the Pippinids or the Arnulfings, who had long served as mayors of the palace of Austrasia since the reign of Dagobert I. Despite their newfound influence over the entire realm of Francia, the Pippinids did not seek to claim the throne for themselves, instead choosing to govern through their Merovingian puppets. The Franks, at that time, were not yet willing to accept any other dynasty to rule over them. However, this sentiment would eventually shift following the dynamic reign of Charles Martel (l. c. 688-741), a member of the Pippinid clan who assumed the position of mayor of the palace of Austrasia in 715. Charles, the great leader of the Franks, achieved a momentous victory over the Umayyad Caliphate at the Battle of Tours in 732. This triumph solidified his position as the de facto ruler of Francia, showcasing his exceptional prowess and strategic brilliance. By 737, Charles' personal influence had grown to such an extent that he no longer felt the need to appoint a new ruler after the death of his puppet king, Theuderic IV. The throne remained vacant, a testament to Charles' unrivaled power and authority, until his own demise in 741.
By A História7 months ago in History
El Cid "Campeador"
The life of Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, better known as El Cid Campeador, is an epic saga that took place in medieval Spain during the 11th century. He is one of the most iconic and revered figures in Spanish history and was a legendary hero both in real life and in literature. His story is a mixture of military bravery, shrewd diplomacy and complex political relationships. El Cid was born Rodrigo Díaz circa 1043 in Vivar, also known as Castillona de Bivar, a small town about ten kilometers (or six miles) north of Burgos, the capital of Castile. His father, Diego Laínez, was a courtier, bureaucrat, and cavalryman who had fought in several battles. Despite the fact that El Cid's mother's family was aristocratic, in later years the peasants would consider him one of their own. However, his relatives were not major court officials; documents show that El Cid's paternal grandfather, Laín, confirmed only five documents of Ferdinand I's; his maternal grandfather, Rodrigo Álvarez, certified only two of Sancho II's; and El Cid's father confirmed only one. As a young man in 1057, El Cid fought against the Moorish stronghold of Zaragoza, making its emir al-Muqtadir a vassal of Sancho. In the spring of 1063, El Cid fought in the Battle of Graus, where Ferdinand's half-brother, Ramiro I of Aragon, was laying siege to the Moorish town of Graus, which was fought on Zaragozan lands in the valley of the river Cinca. Al-Muqtadir, accompanied by Castilian troops including El Cid, fought against the Aragonese. The party slew Ramiro I, setting the Aragonese army on the run, and emerged victorious. One legend has said that during the conflict, El Cid killed an Aragonese knight in single combat, thereby receiving the honorific title "Campeador".
By A História7 months ago in History
The Jinn
The jinn (Arabic: جن, jinn) are a supernatural being in Islamic mythology and folklore. They are often described as being made of fire or smoke, and they have the ability to shapeshift. The jinn are said to be capable of great feats of magic and deception, and they can be both benevolent and malevolent.
By A História7 months ago in History
The Most Famous Pirates in History
During the golden age of piracy, the civilized world faced the rise of several pirate captains who terrorized merchant sea routes by boarding and plundering ships in search of valuable goods. We will learn more about some of the main and most famous pirates in history.
By A História8 months ago in History
The Different Ages of Man in Greek Mythology
The rich and diverse Greek mythology plays a fundamental role in understanding the culture and beliefs of the ancient world. Among its many stories and characters, one of the most fascinating narratives is the description of the ages of man, which illustrates the evolution of humanity through five distinct golden ages, silver, bronze, heroes, and iron. Each of these ages represents a unique period in mythical history, reflecting changes in the relationship between human beings, gods, and nature, as well as transformations in human morals and ethics.
By A História8 months ago in History
The Epic of Gilgamesh
In ancient times, during the reign of the ancient Gods, there existed a powerful Sumerian King named Gilgamesh who ruled over the great city of Euroque in Mesopotamia. Gilgamesh was not an ordinary man, but rather a Demigod, being the son of the priest king, Wanda, and a God. As a result, he possessed extraordinary physical strength and beauty, and had a longer lifespan than normal humans. However, despite his physical qualities, Gilgamesh had an arrogant personality and abused his authority as King, demanding to be idolized by his people and ordering the construction of monuments in his honor. He also seduced any woman who pleased him, regardless of her status or marital status. Over time, the population of the city of Uruk began to repudiate their king and prayed to the Gods to be saved from his cruelty.
By A História8 months ago in History
Kubai Khan
Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, was the greatest of the Mongol emperors after his predecessor and founder of the dynasty in China. Under his rule, the Mongol Empire reached its greatest extent, becoming one of the largest empires the world had ever seen. Kublai Khan was a wise ruler who managed to lead a wide variety of peoples and nations, adapting different traditions to his own government. He was born on September 23, 1215, in the current region of Mongolia. Despite his short period of leadership, Kublai Khan was considered an efficient administrator and was responsible for establishing the Mongol capital at Karacuru in present-day Mongolia. Under his leadership, the city became an important center of political-administrative and cultural activities of the empire.
By A História8 months ago in History
The Golden Horde
The Kanato of the Golden Horde was a prominent empire during the Middle Ages, characterized by a brilliant culture, well-trained army, and consolidated administrative service system. The empire was home to people of diverse ethnicities, religions, and languages, and their coexistence was a rare example of silent cultural enrichment. The history of the Golden Horde dates back to ancient times when the skilled and visionary military leader, Genesis, aimed to conquer territories and create his own empire. Under the command of Genghis Khan, the Mongols carried out a series of devastating military campaigns, conquering vast tracts of land over many years. Their innovative warfare tactics, such as the use of mobile cavalry and archers, gave them a significant advantage against their enemies. The military might of the Mongols conquered territories in Asia, the Middle East, and Europe, forming the largest empire of contiguous lands in history.
By A História8 months ago in History
