the ancient egyptian civilization lasted for over 3 000 years and became one of the most powerful and iconic civilizations in history at its height ancient egypt's empire stretched as far north as modern-day syria and as far south as today's sudan but long before it was an empire ancient egypt was a series of small independent city-states that bloomed along north africa's nile river the city-states were divided into two regions and named according to the flow of the nile upper egypt in the south which was upstream and lower egypt in the north which was downstream by about 3100 bc the two halves united thereby creating one egyptian state that lasted for millennia the reign of the civilization can be divided into three major periods of prosperity called the old middle and new kingdoms and two periods of instability in between called the first and second intermediate periods guiding the egyptian people was a succession of about 300 rulers often referred to as pharaohs pharaoh which means great house in egyptian was never the ruler's formal title it only became synonymous with the ruling individual in modern times thanks to its use in the hebrew bible these rulers who were not always men nor egyptian were considered protectors of the people and served as divine liaisons between humanity and the hundreds of gods they worshipped after the rulers passed away ancient egyptians believed they then became gods to prepare their journey into the afterlife the rulers constructed elaborate tombs including the great pyramids at giza and underground mausoleums in the valley of the kings rulers filled their tombs with all the items they could need in the afterlife including gold jewelry food drink and even pets preparing for this journey to the gods also involved mummifying one's body the deceased's corpse was embalmed wrapped in hundreds of yards of linen and placed inside the tomb so the body could be reanimated in the afterlife to this day structures like the great pyramids are a testament to the role of religion in ancient egyptians lives but they also represent the innovative and cultural might of the egyptian people innovations in mathematics and written language in particular propelled their civilization to success math specifically measurement mathematics helped egyptians understand and harness their world with numbers like no other civilization had before they developed a new form of measurement called the qubit it was used to design massive structures such as the great pyramid with remarkable geometrical precision the egyptians also measured time by combining mathematics with astronomy they established a 24-hour division to the day and created a solar calendar which was the first dating system in history to feature 365 days in one year lastly egyptians developed methods to measure and survey land around the nile river these civil engineering feats made way for the construction of dams canals and irrigation systems that helped farming and agriculture to flourish in the nile valley in addition to mathematical concepts the ancient egyptians also created written languages to describe the world around them the oldest and probably most well-known of these is hieroglyphic writing this system was developed around 3150 bc during the old kingdom and has over 700 pictorial characters it was used to inscribe monuments and pottery and predominantly served a decorative or ceremonial purpose soon after another ancient form of writing called hieratic developed out of the hieroglyphic system it was a form of cursive that was written in ink and served a more functional purpose unlike its more formal predecessor hieratic was written on another ancient egyptian innovation papyrus papyrus was a type of paper derived from the papyrus plant which grew plentifully along the nile river this medium gave the ancient egyptians a new avenue of communication and record keeping that allowed their civilization's administrative skill to grow and their culture to spread for thousands of years as with all great empires ancient egypt came to an end it was eventually conquered after a series of invasions including those by the persian empire in the 4th century bc and the roman empire around 30 bc not many civilizations can claim a lifespan of over 3000 years let alone one that made vast cultural contributions that still resonate in modern times ancient egypt with its linguistic and mathematical innovations spirituality and religion and extensive political and military might set a high standard for all civilizations that followed [Music] you
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The world’s most mysterious book
Yale University's Beinecke Library and Manuscript Library houses a 240-page book. The new carbon copy, from around 1420, has vellum pages with hand-drawn circles and hand-drawn illustrations that seem stolen from a dream. Real and imaginary plants, haunted houses, bathing women, star charts, zodiac signs, suns and moons and faces are all over the text. The 24x16 cm book, known as the Voynich Manuscript, is one of the greatest mysteries in history. The reason? No one knew what he was saying. The name comes from the Polish bookseller Wilfrid Voynich, who discovered writing in 1912 at a Jesuit university in Italy. He was confused. Who wrote it? Where is it made? What do these different words and vivid images represent? What secrets lie within its pages? He bought the books from a priest of the school of finance and brought them to the United States of America, where scholars have been studying for more than a century. Cryptozoologists say that the writing contains all the features of a real language, only one of which has never been seen before. What is true is that, in real languages, letters and groups of letters appear with constant frequency, but the language in the Voynich text is a pattern that cannot be found in various generators. random. Besides, all we know is what we see. The letters vary in shape and height. Some borrow from other texts, but many are unique. The higher letters give the name of the hanging shape. The whole text is beautifully decorated, like a scroll decoration. It seems that two or more people wrote it, while someone else did the painting. Over the years, three main theories have emerged about the text of the text. First, it is written in cipher, a cipher designed to hide the secret meaning. Second, the article is a scam written to make money from scammers. Some suggested that the author was a medieval impostor. Some believe it was Voynich himself. A third theory is that the text is written in the original language, but in an unknown script. Perhaps medieval scholars were trying to create an alphabet for a spoken but unwritten language. In this respect, the Voynich Manuscript may be similar to the Longorongo manuscript found on Easter Island, which is now unreadable due to cultural collapse. Although no one was able to read the Voynich manuscripts, that didn't stop people from thinking about what was written in them. Those who believe that the text represents an attempt to create a new form of literary language suggest that the text may have been an encyclopedia containing knowledge of the culture that produced it. Some believe that it was the 13th century scholar Roger Bacon, who sought to understand the rules of universal grammar; or John Dee, the Elizabethan magician of the 16th century, who practiced sorcery and witchcraft. Other fringe theories suggest that the book was written by a group of Italian magicians, even Martians. After a century of confusion, scientists finally solved the mystery. The first breakthrough is carbon dioxide. Furthermore, modern historians date the documents to Rome and Prague in 1612, when they were given to the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II in his ' by doctor Jacobus Sennapius (Jacobus Sinapius). In addition to this previous stage, linguistic researchers have also considered defining certain words in the text. Could the letters next to these seven stars spell Tauran (the name of the constellation Taurus), a constellation containing seven stars called the Pleiades? Could this word be Centaurun for the Centaurea plant in the picture? Maybe, but progress is slow. If we could crack the code, what would we find? The dream diary of a 15th century painter? Don't you? Or is knowledge lost from a forgotten culture? What do you think?
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