A Critique of the Social, Ethical, Professional and Legal Issues Relating to the Development and Usage of Computer Systems

Undeniably, the exhilarating and intricate discipline of computer science has produced incredible technological systems over recent decades that have had a transformational effect on society worldwide. Indeed, the profound economic and societal implications of computer science have been astonishing and unparalleled. Over forty years ago, Gotlieb and Borodin published a seminal work Social Issues in Computing which anticipated the far-reaching and revolutionary implications of computer technology on the modern era.

Generally speaking, the digital computer has been the centrepiece of this technological revolution. Certainly, this sophisticated and complex electronic device is a key technology that has been central to critical operations in contemporary industrialised society, including manufacturing, aviation, logistics, transportation, government, health, education, research, and armed services. Quite frankly, there is virtually not one sphere of activity in the modern age that is not directly impacted by computer technology.

Indeed, the influence and pervasiveness of computer-based systems continues to grow at an exponential rate worldwide. This is made possible in no small part by the increased availability of personal computers as well as smartphones in the global market. Significant advances in electronic manufacturing processes and miniaturisation over the years has resulted in a glut of personal computer systems (e.g. desktop PCs, laptops, tablet PCs as well as smartphones) at affordable prices to keep pace with ever-growing demand for these devices.

Although significant disparities exist in computer usage between different countries depending upon their geographical location (International Telecommunications Union 2015), it is fair to say that computer technology is here to stay. As computer-based systems become more ubiquitous, the social, ethical, professional, and legal consequences of computer (and smartphone) utilisation are an inevitable legacy of this growing phenomenon.

Notwithstanding the positive transformational changes that the new era of computing has ushered in, there are, however, a legion of undesirable and in some cases unsavoury social and ethical issues that have accompanied technological advancements. Examples of social, ethical and legal problems created by mass computerisation include:

• Communication breakdown within family and social units

• Defamation of character

• Identity theft

• Cyber bulling

• Gaming addiction

• Privacy violations

• Adverse impact upon health and fitness

• Sexual deviancy

• Rampant plagiarism in educational settings (e.g. universities)

• Dissemination of extremist propaganda

• Cybercrime

• Software theft

• Misappropriation of intellectual property

• Hacking

• Malware

While this list is not intended to be exhaustive, it does indeed provide a snapshot of the types of blatant and persistent issues that have blighted the otherwise positive and indispensable advances that computer technology has engendered.

Since contemporary computerisation is inextricably linked to the explosive growth in Internet usage worldwide, some of the most notable social, ethical, and legal issues ordinarily associated with computer use (or misuse) primarily predominate in the cyber arena.

According to Kopecky and Karpinski in their 2010 paper, the number of unethical and dubious websites is increasing every day and the conditions for unrestricted access to these sites via modern computing technology (e.g. smartphones) are easier than ever before. Another worrying trend is that the mean age of persons visiting these sites (e.g. adult pornography, extremist propaganda, etc.) is reducing. Also, according to preliminary research published in the British Journal of Criminology, the vast majority of computer users nowadays seem to have an innate proclivity to visit websites containing explicitly dubious and, in some cases blatantly illegal content (Demetriou and Silke 2003). Sadly, it is well-known amongst social psychologists that consistent and protracted exposure to such websites can increase the dangers of high-risk sexual behaviour, social dilemmas, as well as mental and psychological problems. Another strand to this social quandary facilitated by computing technology is that communicating with anonymous people and physically visiting these “strangers” is a phenomenon that is increasing throughout the networked world (Kopecky and Karpinski 2010).

Another phenomenon that seems to be growing in prevalence is Internet addiction and copyright theft. This has long been regarded by some in developed countries as one of the direct consequences of the ever-increasing expansion of the electronic communications network as well as the ubiquity of computing devices (e.g. smartphones). Without a doubt, Internet addiction and inordinate use of social networks (e.g. Facebook®, myspace®, etc) has in some way degraded the social fabric and variously caused harm to the individual, family units, and society as a whole. In some societies, the grand-scale theft of copyrighted material (e.g. software, music, films, video games, etc.) has become commonplace and normalised.

Unauthorised access to computer systems is another worrying trend that continues to scourge private enterprises, governments, non-governmental organisations, multinational corporations, and armed services, to mention just a few. In truth, the relentless rise in the global extent of this problem is utterly shocking. Each day, hackers and other cybercriminals develop and deploy new and ingenious tools to mount sophisticated attacks on networked computer systems throughout the world. Whether it is to steal commercially sensitive data, infiltrate the bank accounts of private individuals or infect computer systems with malware or ransomware, cybercriminals undoubtedly pose the greatest challenge to IT ethics (Reynolds 2015).

Nowadays, many computer games exhibit dark overtones or are overtly violent in nature. Consequently, exposure to and active participation in such electronic games may indeed stimulate aggressive antisocial behaviour in addition to violent thoughts and feelings.

Another dimension to computer usage that has particularly malign legal repercussions relates to the deliberate forgery of digital documents in the administrative and business arenas. Fraudulent electronic crimes such as counterfeiting digital signatures, digital images and other digital artefacts and using these items for the purposes of illicit gain is an important area in the field of IT security and computer ethics (Reynolds 2015).

Online gambling is another unpleasant facet to modern computer usage that is growing in popularity and extent. Apparently, more and more gamblers and adrenaline junkies around the world prefer online casinos and virtual betting shops as the ideal place to satiate their gambling compulsions. Online casinos have become very popular nowadays compared to physical casinos; indeed, virtual betting has also witnessed an unprecedented upsurge in interest and demand relative to the bookie shop. The main reasons cited as being responsible for this online gambling explosion include convenience, versatility, user-friendliness, and numerous deposit options (e.g. credit and debit cards). Once again, significant advances in computer technology (e.g. smartphones) have aided and abetted the growth of the online gaming industry to such an extent that this socially detrimental pursuit is now a permanent feature of the recreational landscape in most modern developed countries (Smith 2019).

Other examples of social, ethical, and legal issues arising out of the use (or misuse) of computer technology are: cyber bullying, communicating with anonymous individuals over the Internet which may result in online grooming, sharing sensually stimulating and erotic materials in an irresponsible manner with so-called “romantic interests”, as well as sharing personal information on the Internet with suspect corporate entities or organisations of questionable repute. These intractable problems have long been acknowledged as the inherent dangers of Internet communications (Thompson et al. 2008). Since Internet technologies are inextricably linked to the use of the modern digital computer and related electronic devices, computer science has inadvertently spawned a large number of serious social, ethical, and other problems which unfortunately detract from all the positive benefits that modern computerisation has conferred upon contemporary society.

While much of the discussion thus far has primarily focused upon the social, ethical, and legal repercussions of computer usage, there is much to be said about the professional and occupational impacts of computer technology. Certainly, the rapid and inexorable growth of computing technologies has had a direct impact on employment and professional duties. Some of these impacts have been positive; in stark contrast, some have been negative.

In the main, technological change primarily relates to automation; and automation in the workplace invariably means computers. While automated processes on the shop floor and in the office can result in significant increases in productivity and inevitable cost savings, advances in technology can and does indeed eliminate jobs. It is worth pointing out that technological advances do not only affect an individual worker’s attitude towards work but also has direct impacts upon the volume and nature of work completed by the individual worker. These changes in collective employee attitudes and productivity metrics precipitated and fostered by technological advances not only directly impinge upon the organisational structure of individual companies but also percolate throughout the entire economy over time.

Despite the high rate of technological change and computerisation witnessed during the latter stages of the twentieth century and the beginnings of this century, the total labour pool of advanced and emerging market economies has steadily increased. Even though productivity has significantly increased to keep pace with relatively buoyant consumer demand over recent decades, this marked increase in productivity has not necessarily resulted in seismic shifts in employment figures. In other words, automation and mass computerisation did not lead to significant job losses as originally feared. Instead, the skills profile of workers gradually adapted to reflect the new economic paradigm ushered in by digitalisation.

While alienation and fear relating to the adoption and implementation of automated and technological solutions in the workplace and industry are still commonplace, in general the introduction of automation and computerisation has improved work attitudes, especially in emerging markets. According to a paper published by the International Monetary Fund in 2019, workers and professionals with higher levels of job satisfaction, higher educational attainment, and from countries with a good track record of proactively safeguarding labour rights tend to view the digitalisation of the workplace more favourably compared to other socio-economic groupings.

Contrariwise, negative perceptions regarding the use of automated technologies and digitalisation in the workplace are mainly prevalent amongst workers who are older, less well-educated, economically disadvantaged, more exposed to job volatility, and from countries that are currently experiencing higher levels of robot use relative to other geographical regions (Mulas-Granados et al. 2019).

Despite the manifold benefits that automation and computerisation has introduced over the decades, it is becoming more and more apparent that the benefits of digitalisation are unevenly distributed throughout the economic sphere owing to the skills-biased nature of technological advances. In short, those workers who have upskilled shall reap the rewards of the new technological era, whereas those who have not shall economically perish. With this in mind, re-education and retraining will be needed to ensure that labour pools are able to seamlessly adapt to rapidly evolving skill imperatives brought about by the growing reliance upon computer technologies (Dachs 2018).

Considering the significant and wide-ranging social, ethical, legal, and professional implications of computer-based systems on contemporary society, it behoves computer scientists in the first instance to fully understand the indirect and unintentional consequences that sometimes surrounds their professional and research activities. Undeniably, most developments and innovations in the realm of computer science offer tremendous benefits to humanity. Unfortunately, as previously discussed, there are also significant drawbacks associated with ICT that give pause for thought.

With this in mind, the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) has published a document, ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct which establishes the basis for personal responsibility and professional conduct for computer specialists who are engaged in the development of computer-based systems that directly affect the general public. This document is designed to inspire and guide the ethical conduct of all computing professionals throughout the world as well as anyone who uses computer-based systems in an impactful way.

Indeed, universities and further education bodies that deliver computer science programmes have a moral and professional duty to teach ethical conduct relating to the development and practical application of computing technologies as an integral part of mainstream computer science education. Such courses should introduce students to the fundamental principles that inform and govern computer ethics. Suffice it to say that these ethical principles and best practice guidelines can play a key role in informing computer professionals, including current and aspiring practitioners, on how we might all move forward to harness the incredible potential of computers whilst mitigating the ever-present threats to end-users and the general public.

References

ACM (2018). “ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct.” Association for Computing Machinery. New York, USA.

Demetriou, C. and Silke, A. (2003). “A Criminological Internet ‘Sting’: Experimental evidence of illegal and deviant visits to a website trap.” British Journal of Criminology. 43: 213-222.

Dachs, B. (2018). “The impact of new technologies on the labour market and the social economy.” European Parliamentary Research Service: Scientific Foresight Unit.

Gotlieb, C.C. and Borodin, A. (1973). “Social Issues in Computing.” New York (USA): Academic Press.

International Telecommunications Union 2015. “Individuals using the Internet 2005 to 2014: Key ICT indicators for developed and developing countries and the world.” International Telecommunications Union. Geneva, Switzerland.

Kopecky, K. and Karpinski, A.C. (2010). “The risks of Internet communication.” Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences. 69: 1348-1357.

Mulas-Granados, C., Varghese, R., Boranova, V., de Chalendar, A., and Wallenstein, J. (2019). “Automation, Skills and the Future of Work: What do Workers Think?” IMF Working Paper. European Department. International Monetary Fund.

Reynolds, G.W. (2015). “Ethics in Information Technology: Fifth Edition.” Boston (USA): Cengage Learning.

Smith, A. (2019). “Why online gambling is so popular?” Virtual Strategy Magazine. August 2019 (online resource).

Thompson, L.A., Dawson, K., Ferdig, R., Black, E.W., Boyer, J., Coutts, J., and Black, N.P. (2008). “The intersection of online social networking with medical professionalism.” Journal of General Internal Medicine. 23(7): 954-957.